Dark Matter

Dark matter is proposed as a hypothetical form of matter thought to account for approximately 85% of the matter in the universe. Apparent galactic rotation anomaly necessitated additional matter in galaxy to sustain its observed spin speed. Since no additional real matter could be observed, imaginary dark matter was invented to provide suitable explanation to galactic rotation anomaly. As dark matter is not defined, it is assigned different meanings in different theories. Galactic rotation anomaly is an apparent phenomenon caused by assigning reality to apparent planetary orbital paths around central bodies. Refer: http://viXra.org/abs/1403.0972

Dark Energy

In cosmology and astronomy, dark energy is an unknown form of energy that affects the large scale universe. Dark energy is an assumed property of empty space, required to validate the assumption of cosmic inflation at accelerating pace. Since universe is of steady state, assumption of dark energy is superfluous. Refer: http://vixra.org/abs/1101.0016

Binary systems

Existence of binary star (and multi star) systems is a widely believed supposition. In binary systems, two stars (along with their accompanying macro bodies) are assumed to revolve in circular paths around their barycenter in space. In multi star systems, more than two stars are assumed to orbit around a common barycenter. Stability of their paths is attributed to gravitational attraction between them and the centrifugal actions due to their curved (circular) paths. Each system is assumed to float independently in space without external help. All external influences are ignored. Often their orbiting paths may differ from conventional elliptical shape to facilitate the assumption. Macro bodies, floating freely in space is very illogical and contrary to physical realities. All macro bodies in universe (except stable galaxies) have translational motion in space at very high linear speeds. In reality, it is physically impossible for a free macro body to revolve around another moving body in any kind of geometrically closed path. [This can be clarified by observing a person trying to move around another person walking along a defined path]. Each body in space has its own independent linear path. Shape of this path may be influenced by external factors (to some extent) to alter its linearity. Therefore, circular/elliptical paths of stars in a binary/multi star system (and elliptical planetary orbits about their central bodies) are untenable and physically impossible proposition. [See: http://vixra.org/pdf/1311.0018v1.pdf]. Two stars of equal 3D matter-contents (masses), moving in more or less parallel paths in the same direction but approaching each other under mutual gravitational attraction may gradually change directions of their paths to spiral about a central path. They may appear as members of a binary star system for a short while. Stability of such a system is very critical. Even slightest changes in their 3D matter-contents, variation in external influences or uneven distribution of their 3D matter-contents within their bodies would make the system unstable and disintegrate into individual stars, moving in independent directions. Hence, supposition of stable binary star systems is merely an imaginary exercise. [See: https://vixra.org/abs/2109.0112].

Black hole

A black hole is currently defined as ‘a region of spacetime where gravity is so strong that nothing — no particles or even electromagnetic radiation such as light — can escape from it’. Yet we are able to photograph and receive information from it. Black hole is a region of space occupied by an extremely dense 3D macro body and from where no information reaches the outside world. Except for its extremely high 3D matter-density, the 3D macro body within a black hole is like any other macro body. It has neither exotic nor mysterious properties. Like other macro bodies, black hole also radiates matter in the form of photons (corpuscles of radiation) under gravitational collapse. Due to very high gravitational attraction between outgoing photons and the black hole, 3D matter-contents of the photons disperse into space until they die. This prevents information from reaching outside world. Surviving electromagnetic waves from the dead photons form the CMB radiation, noticed in nature. See: http://vixra.org/pdf/1404.0056v1.pdf. Every stable galaxy has a black hole as its central part. A black hole is formed by accretion of 3D matter-bodies at the central part of a galactic cloud. Growth of the black hole at the centre of a spinning galaxy would continue until centrifugal actions on nearby 3D matter-bodies overcome gravitational attraction on them towards the black hole. Black holes play significant part in recycling of matter between different spatial statuses and thus maintain entropy in nature within limits.

Planetary spin

All macro bodies in space are accreted from dense parts of galactic gasses. During their accretion, denser parts approach each other and other accreting bodies under mutual gravitational attraction in random directions. As the body becomes denser, it develops linear motion at very high linear speed. Simultaneously, the body also develops an apparent spin motion in a resultant direction of directions of movements of its parts. Rotary motion of a body requires diametrically opposite points (in rotating planes) on its surface to move in opposite directions. However, due to very high linear speed of the body, every point on it moves in the same direction and slight differences in linear speeds of diametrically opposite points on the body produces the appearance of the body spinning about its central axis. After a planet enters its orbital path, direction of its apparent spin motion is gradually stabilized in the plane of its orbital plane. Similarly, spin motion of a planet is apparent only about its central axis. Part of central force on a planet, orbiting about a central body, produces the torque on it to cause planet’s apparent spin motion. Torque applied on the planet during its motion in alternating half cycles of orbiting path are in opposite directions. Therefore, depending on the values of torques in opposite directions, resulting apparent spin motion of a planet may be in either direction or the planet may have no apparent spin motion at all. See; https://vixra.org/pdf/1008.0029v4.pdf

Three-body problem

Three-body (multi-body) problem is an imaginary conundrum in contemporary cosmology. It deals with orbits of planetary bodies about their central bodies in a planetary system. We may take orbits of sun (the central body), the earth (a planetary body) and the moon (a satellite body) as an example. In a heliocentric solar system; First: the sun is assumed to occupy a fixed point in space, without translation. Earth is assumed to orbit around the static sun. Second: The earth is assumed to occupy a fixed point in space, without translation. The moon is assumed to orbit around the static earth. For this scenario to be true, at least the earth has to be simultaneously translating and static in space. This is an impossible proposition. Except stable galaxies, all systems of macro bodies and independent macro bodies in space are moving at great linear speeds. Hence, central bodies of planetary systems or a planet that appears as central body of a satellite body are not physical realities. Therefore, n-body problem is an imaginary analytical exercise. See: http://vixra.org/pdf/1205.0097v2.pdf

Planetary orbits

An orbit is the gravitationally curved (regularly repeating) imaginary trajectory of an object around another body. The central body is always assumed static in space and the orbiting body is assumed to move around the central body. Except for gravitational attraction, all macro bodies in space are independent of each other. Those bodies in a group that are relatively nearby and having considerable gravitational attraction between them are considered as a planetary system. All macro bodies in a planetary system arrive from outside the system. All objects in nature move at great linear speeds. It is physically impossible for a free macro body to orbit around another moving body in any type of geometrically closed path. Hence, real planetary orbits are not around their central bodies but are wavy about the mean paths of central bodies, alternatively moving in front and rear of the central body under mutual gravitational attraction. Eccentricity and curvature of segments of these paths on either side of mean path of central body are determined by their relative parameters. Central bodies of planetary systems orbit around respective galactic centers. Therefore, planetary orbits about a corresponding central body are ideally in the plane of central body’s orbital path around galactic center. Minor discrepancies are removed in due course of time. See: http://vixra.org/pdf/1008.0010v2.pdf.

Properties of bitons

A biton is the most stable and self-stabilizing 3D matter-particle. Bitons may approach each other under gravitational attractions, whenever disc-planes of constituent photons in one biton coincide with disc-planes of constituent photons in another biton. Depending on the polarities of their primary electric fields, two bitons within range and in a plane may apparently attract or apparently repel each other. Combinations of primary electric fields of bitons in superior 3D matter-particles/bodies produce resultant electric fields about them. A cloudy set of half-rings may be assumed as visual image of a biton. Gaps between the half-rings indicate the place where disc-planes of photons’ coincide with the plane of biton. A biton is a ring-shaped 3D matter-particle with primary electric field in the ring’s plane. At high linear speed, a biton tends to place its plane perpendicular to direction of its linear motion. This phenomenon produces halo around a stable galaxy, by arranging (re-arranging) bitons moving along the periphery of its spinning body and helps to keep distance towards neighboring galaxies steady and prevent their translations in space (thus maintains steady state of universe). A biton is the most stable and self-stabilizing 3D matter-particle. Free-floating bitons are plentiful in space. Under suitable conditions, they may from various fundamental particles and superior 3D matter-bodies. Two bitons in mutually perpendicular planes about a common centre form an elementary 3D matter-particle, a tetron. A single layered shell formed by numerous tetrons is a neutron. Three bitons in mutually perpendicular planes, about a common centre form a fundamental 3D matter-particle, a hexton. Hextons are of two kinds – positron and electron. A positron, being part of a neutron-like shell, forms a proton. A positron, linking two neutron-like shells, forms a deuteron. Deuterons are major components of atoms. Each deuteron is presently counted as one proton + one neutron.

Stable biton

Inertial properties of distortion-field around a biton guide 3D matter-cores of its constituent photons to synchronize their movements with each other. They will move at the same linear speeds and spin at the same frequency in phase with each other. Disc-planes of 3D matter-cores of these photons will always coincide with each other. Mean circumference of a biton is equal to one wave-length of its constituent photons. A cloudy set of half-rings may be assumed as visual image of a biton. Gap between the half-rings indicate positions of photons when planes of their 3D matter-cores coincide with the plane of biton. External pressure on a biton tends to push constituent photons towards each other and thus reducing mean diameter of the biton. Overbearing between inertial-pockets of the photons tends to reduce their linear speeds and pace way for the photons to reduce their 3D matter-contents. Reduction of 3D matter-content of a photon lowers its frequency. Reduction in frequency of constituent photons of a biton increases mean circumference of the biton and thus making it larger in size. Therefore, external pressure on constituent bitons of a 3D matter-body causes its expansion in size and loss of 3D matter-content from it. This phenomenon is heating. A 3D matter-body is at its highest 3D matter-content level (coolest) and smallest in size when external pressure on it is least (in free space). For the same reason, inner core of all macro bodies are at much higher temperature than its surface and may be in different physical states. Each photon has a primary electric field in its circular plane. Combinations of primary electric fields of constituent bitons in superior 3D matter-bodies produce their resultant electric fields. Arrangements of primary / resultant electric fields in proper array produce a magnetic field.

Interactions by photons in a biton

Constituent photons of a biton move in common circular path at the constant linear speed of light. Radial size of a biton is maintained by balancing gravitational attraction between 3D matter-cores of constituent photons by centrifugal actions due to curvature of their common circular path. Variations in photons’ 3D matter-contents make identical changes in both gravitational attraction and centrifugal actions, so that radial size of a biton is maintained. Interactions between matter-fields of the constituent photons of a biton maintain synchronization of their frequency, relative position in the common circular path and continuous coincidence of disc-planes of 3D matter-cores of photons. Linear speed at the highest possible limit and spin speed proportional to 3D matter-content of the photons are maintained by their inertial pockets (structurally deformed region in universal medium surrounding photon’s 3D matter-core). Inertial pockets, being material structures, have inertial properties. Hence, setting up has certain time delay. Similarly, removal of structural distortions in universal medium along a photon’s path to restore its stability also has certain time delay. This inertial property of universal medium lets certain magnitude of structural deformation to permanently exist around the biton in the shape of circular distortion-field. Circular distortion-field is an electric field. Hence, every photon exhibits a primary electric field about it. Very high distortion-density within parts of permanent primary electric field setup within circular path of the photons in a biton and associated with each of the photons tends to prevent collision between 3D matter-cores of photons under external influence. However, if the external influence is too large, 3D matter-cores of the photons may unite to form a single photon of twice the 3D matter-content, which may eventually deteriorate into a stable photon of lower frequency.

Formation of Bitons

Two high-frequency photons of (almost) identical 3D matter-content, moving in parallel paths in opposite directions, are within range and spinning in phase with each other come under gravitational attraction between them. They would be spinning at the same frequency in the same direction with respect to each other and disc-planes of their 3D matter-cores will coincide at the moment they cross each other. At this moment, if the gravitational attraction between them is strong enough to deflect their paths so that the photons will move in common circular paths about common centre. The photons will continue to spin in phase with each other and their 3D matter-cores will continuously be coplanar. This combination of two high-frequency photons is a ‘biton’. A biton is the most stable and self-stabilizing 3D matter-particle. Strict parameters and complimentary movements of high-frequency photons, required to form a biton, restrict rate of bitons formed in universe. Very high stability of bitons ensure equally very low rate of destruction of bitons. However, ample supply of free bitons is available to form superior 3D matter-particles under suitable conditions. General shape of a biton is an imaginary tubular ring (formed by structurally distorted region in universal medium) with constituent photons placed at diametrically opposite points on its periphery and moving along the common circular path while spinning in phase with each other. Girth of this imaginary tube is least when disc-planes of photons’ 3D matter-cores coincide with the plane of their common circular path. Similarly, girth of this imaginary tube is most when disc-planes of photons’ 3D matter-cores are perpendicular to the plane of their common circular path.

Nuclear field

Structurally deformed region in the universal medium is a ‘field’. A field is represented by imaginary lines of force. Curved (angular) lines of force indicate an electric field. Linear lines of force indicate a magnetic field. Radial lines of force indicate a nuclear field. Latticework squares of 2D energy fields (of universal medium) in a radial distortion-field are deformed in linear directions, radially towards or away from a central point. Its lines of force are straight lines with arrows, radiating towards or away from a central point. Interaction between two radial distortion-fields gives rise to ‘nuclear’ nature of distortion-fields. Hence, radial structural distortions in universal medium are a ‘nuclear field’. Nuclear fields are usually produced only by electrons and positrons. Under specific conditions, certain very large macro bodies (towards end of their life) also produce nuclear fields, which may cause their destruction by explosion. Very high intensity explosions also cause nuclear fields. If structural distortions (lines of force) are directed outwards from the central point, they produce ‘repulsive nuclear field’. Fundamental 3D matter-particles, associated with repulsive nuclear field (the electrons), apparently repel all other primary and fundamental 3D matter-particles. If structural distortions (lines of force) are directed inward towards a central point, they produce ‘attractive nuclear field’. Fundamental 3D matter-particles, associated with attractive nuclear fields (the positrons), apparently attract all other primary and fundamental particles. Due to geometry of 2D energy field structure, nuclear fields cannot add to or subtract from each other.

Magnetic field

Structurally deformed region in the universal medium is a ‘field’. A field is represented by imaginary lines of force. Curved (angular) lines of force indicate an electric field. Linear lines of force indicate a magnetic field. Radial lines of force indicate a nuclear field. Latticework squares of 2D energy fields (in universal medium) in a linear distortion-field are compressed or expanded in the same linear direction. Lines of force, representing a magnetic field are straight lines with arrows at outward end. Interaction between linear distortion-fields gives rise to ‘magnetic’ nature of distortion-fields. Hence, linear distortion-fields are ‘magnetic fields’. Due to circular paths of constituent photons in primary 3D matter-particles, there are no 3D matter-bodies that can produce linear distortion-fields. They can be produced only by arranging number of primary 3D matter-particles with angular distortion fields, in suitable array. End of a linear distortion-field, from where the lines of force appear to come out (of the 3D matter-body that is producing the distortion-field) is its ‘North pole’ and the end of linear distortion-field, to which the lines of force appear to enter is its ‘South pole’. A magnetic line of force points towards south polarity. A small part of a curved line of force, of sufficiently large radius of curvature, acts as a linear line of force. Hence, an electric field (angular distortion-field), whose its lines of force have less than certain magnitude curvature, acts as a magnetic field (linear distortion-field), whose axis is perpendicular to the axis of electric field. This phenomenon causes inseparable association between electric and magnetic fields.