Absolute reference frame

‘Hypothesis on MATTER’ (proposed in the book ‘(MATTER (Re-examined)’ envisages a self-stabilizing, homogeneous, isotropic and serene universal medium, structured by matter-particles. Since this medium fills the entire space and (as a whole) is steady in space, it can provide an absolute reference for all actions on and apparent interactions between 3D matter macro bodies. Homogeneity of universal medium is usually affected only in close proximity of matter-bodies. Very large macro bodies affect homogeneity of universal medium for considerable distance from the body. Any point in universal medium may be chosen as an origin and the coordinate planes through the origin will provide an absolute reference frame. When motion of a body is related to the absolute reference, parameters of the body and its path in space will reflect real status of the body and its motion. Motion of a 3D matter-body is an inherent property provided by universal medium. Translational motion with respect to universal medium is essential for stability and integrity of basic 3D matter-particles. Every macro body, in nature, is under motion. However, motion of a macro body is limited to within its parent galaxy. A stable galaxy has no translational motion. It rotates about its centre and all objects, which are part of it, move about galactic centre, which is steady in the universal medium. As the universal medium is not observable and a galaxy is too large, establishing an absolute reference for practical purposes and to relate it to objects’ motions is very tedious and complicated. However, true parameters of a body’s motion can be understood only when an ‘absolute reference’ is used.

Reference frame

Motion is the process of a body’s displacement in space. Change in the spatial location of a body with respect to a reference is its displacement. Instantaneous motion concerns itself with a body’s behaviour during the instant in consideration. Change of position of a body can be understood only in relation to another body or with respect to a frame of reference or a coordinate system. Depending on the references used or the shapes of paths of displacements, motion is classified into various types. Usually, motion involves instant-by-instant charting of the behaviour of an object. This view reveals not only the instantaneous behaviour of the object but gives a complete picture of it behaviour for a length of time and route and shape of its displacements between initial location and final location. All motions are understood in relation to one or other reference. Since, at present, we have no absolute reference; we use any other seemingly steady body as a reference. Newtonian mechanics consider centre of Solar system as an absolute reference for all purposes related to our planetary system. However, this reference is changed to ‘centre of planet’, while considering the satellite systems and to the surface points on earth for day to day motions of earth-based objects. In rotary motion, centre of rotation is taken as a reference point. Inferences, based on relative reference frame, are often false and apparent. It can provide relative positions of the reference and the referred body. However, if reference body itself is moving, it will not be able to give any other parameters related to an object’s motion or shape of its path. As long as reference frame and referred body have identical initial conditions of motions, they are assumed to be at rest in the relative reference frame. However, this does not reflect any changes within the bodies or their paths due to their real state of motion.

Inverse Square Law

Search for ‘cause and effect of an action’ often leads to an evidence that two variables are causally related or not. Observation and measurement of actions may indicate a definite pattern by which an increase in one variable always causes another measurable quantity to increase. This is a ‘direct’ relationship. Observation might also indicate that an increase in one variable always causes another measurable quantity to decrease. This is an ‘inverse’ relationship. In physics, an ‘inverse-square law’ generally states that a specified physical parameter is inversely proportional to the square of the distance from its source. It is generally applied when some conserved quantity is radiated outward radially in three-dimensional space from a point source. Since the surface area of a sphere is proportional to the square of its radius, as the radiated parameter gets farther from its source, it is spread out over an area that is increasing in proportion to the square of the distance from the source. Hence, the intensity of radiation passing through any unit area (directly facing the point source) is inversely proportional to the square of the distance from the point source. Thus any law in which a physical quantity varies with distance from a point, inversely as the square of that distance, is called an ‘inverse square law’. As gravitational attraction is considered as an ‘attractive force’, inverse square law was adopted to determine its magnitude. Magnitude of gravitational attraction between two point-matter-bodies (masses) is directly proportional to the product of their masses (representing their 3D matter-contents) and inversely proportional to square of their separation distance. Gravitational attraction is assumed always as attractive and acting along the straight line, joining centers of two macro bodies. If distribution of 3D matter in each body is spherically symmetric, then these objects can be treated as point masses, whose whole 3D matter-contents are concentrated at their centers. To calculate magnitude of gravitational attraction between large macro bodies, we need to add all point-to-point attractions vectorially and this magnitude of net attraction might not show exact inverse square relationship. However, if distance between the macro bodies is much larger compared to their sizes, then it is reasonable to treat their 3D matter-contents (masses) as point mass while calculating (approximate) magnitude of gravitational attraction. It is evident that the magnitude of gravitational attraction between two 3D matter-bodies is in proportion to their 3D matter-contents and in inverse proportion to the distance between them. On this basis, an empirical formula is devised and used to determine magnitude of gravitational attraction between two 3D matter-bodies. As there are no references available, magnitudes of gravitational attractions are determined on empirical basis and with the help of inverse square law. Gravitational attraction is measured in terms of rate of work that can be done on a (macro) body. Rate of work-done on a physical body is the ‘force’. Hence, gravitational attraction is defined as a ‘force’ of attraction between 3D matter-bodies. Equal magnitude of ‘force’ is presumed to act on both bodies, towards each other. However, they are never taken in combination. Gravitational attraction on any one body and its effect are usually taken in isolation and the same on other body are ignored. Additional work, done on a body, changes its state (of motion). Change in the state of motion is the acceleration of the matter-body. Thus, magnitude of gravitational attraction is measured in terms of rate of additional work (force) that can change the state of motion at certain rate. Force of gravitational attraction; , where m1 and m2 are rest masses of two bodies, equivalent to their 3D matter-contents, d is the distance between their centers of gravity and G is a constant, empirically determined from experiments. Inverse square law for force of gravitational attraction is scaled by the use of a constant, G, determined by measuring inertial (that causes motion) actions of bodies due gravitational attraction between them, as it is done in the cases of various occasions, where this law is applicable. Since G is determined experimentally, no theoretical determination is attempted on logical reasons behind magnitude of this constant.

Magnitude of gravitational attraction

Magnitude of gravitational attraction between two basic 3D matter-particles (photons) is the resultant of gravitational actions on them, when their core bodies are in the same plane. When their disc-planes do not coincide, magnitude of gravitational attraction between them is minimal. For all practical purposes it may be neglected. As universal medium is unable to act on flat surfaces of a photon (its disc-faces), gravitational attraction does not develop between two photons, whose disc-planes do not coincide. Magnitude of gravitational action is proportional to extent of 2D energy fields, applying the effort. Considering two photons in space, whose disc-planes coincide, extents of 2D energy fields on their outer sides are infinite. Nature of 2D energy fields may be considered to be steady. Hence, gravitational actions on their outer sides are of highest and of constant magnitude. However, extent of 2D energy fields between the two photons depends on the distance between them. Hence, distance between peripheries of two photons becomes a factor that determines magnitude of gravitational attraction between them. As distance between two photons increases, magnitude of gravitational efforts on them, from in between the photons increase and gravitational attraction between the photons reduces. Hence, magnitude of gravitational attraction between two matter-bodies is in inverse proportion to distance between them. Gravitational actions are experienced separately by each of the basic 3D matter-particles (photons) in nature. Combinations of photons, in various groupings, form fundamental particles, atoms and all other macro bodies. Gravitational attraction (between two macro bodies), at any instant, develop only between photons in them; whose disc shaped spinning core (matter) bodies happens to be simultaneously in the same plane. Photons are disc-shaped 3D matter-bodies, spinning about their diameters. Primary 3D matter-particles are formed by binary combinations of two spinning photons moving in common circular paths, at their critical linear speeds. Therefore, frequency and regularity of a pair of (one from each macro body) photons coming in the same plane simultaneously are very small. Gravitational attraction between them takes place only when they are in the same plane. Although macro bodies are constituted by numerous photons, at any instant, very minute fractions of constituent photons from both macro bodies are under mutual gravitational attraction. Magnitude of gravitational attraction between two macro bodies is the average sum total of gravitational attractions between their constituent photons. Therefore, practically, magnitude of gravitational attraction between two macro bodies at any instant is a minute fraction of total gravitational attractions between all their constituent photons being in the same plane. Each photon is separately affected by gravitation. More number of photons in a macro body will increase gravitational attraction on it towards another macro body. Total quantity of matter-content in a macro body is roughly proportional to number of photons in a macro body. Total number of photons in a macro body may be represented by its total 3D matter-content. Therefore, magnitude of gravitational attraction due to any one body is roughly proportional to its total 3D matter-content.

Gravitational attraction

All the objects in the universe appear to attract each other with a certain amount of effort. This apparent force is known as ‘gravitational attraction’ or simply as ‘gravity’. Unorganized (or organized) accumulation of quanta of matter is a disturbance in universal medium. If there are more than one disturbance in a plane in universal medium, gravitational pressure acts on each of them separately. Extents of universal medium on the outer sides of these disturbances are greater than the extent in between them. Magnitude of gravitational effort is proportional to the extent of universal medium that is applying the effort. Hence, these disturbances experience greater gravitational efforts on their outer sides compared to the gravitational efforts experienced on their inner sides from universal medium between them. The relative difference between the gravitational efforts applied on either side of individual disturbances tends to move them towards each other. 2D energy fields act on each of the disturbances in it, separately. Simultaneous actions by (invisible) universal medium on two or more disturbances (bodies), considered together, appears as interactions between these disturbances. This is the apparent attraction due to gravitation or gravitational attraction. Gravitational attraction (gravity) is the resultant (relatively a minor by-product) of separate gravitational actions on two 3D matter-particles by universal medium. Universal medium fills the entire space outside the most basic 3D matter-particles. Hence, the universal medium is present between any two most basic 3D matter-particles irrespective of their locations or distance between them. This makes the range of gravitational attraction infinity. Actual value of gravitational constant in the region of our space is approximately 2.2 x 1037 m3/(Kg Sec2) (about 3.3 x 1047 times of present value of ‘G’. This value is for gravitational attraction between two most basic 3D matter-particles, whose disc planes coincide. Resulting pressure is so high that it is able to convert 1D quanta of matter into 3D matter. Compare this with present value of G = 6.668 x 10-11 m3/(Kg Sec2), currently used for calculations by us with respect to macro bodies. Action of gravitational effort/pressure on each 3D matter-body is independent of all other 3D matter-bodies. Development of structural distortions in universal medium about a 3D matter-body, which produce gravitational actions on it, is an inertial action (an action that produces the property of inertia of matter-bodies). This takes place during the development of basic 3D matter-particles. Thereafter, the apparent interactions between 3D matter-macro bodies, due to gravitation, are instantaneous. Hence, gravitational attraction between 3D matter-bodies takes place instantly on change of their parameters or constitution. Changes in the parameters or constitution of a 3D matter-body are carried out by developing appropriate structural distortions in universal medium about the body. Gravitational effort on the body changes simultaneously during this development. This causes instantaneous changes in gravitational attraction between two 3D matter-bodies, on changes of their parameters. No transfer of imaginary particles/energy from one body to another is required to produce changes in gravitational attraction between two 3D matter-bodies. However, the inertial motions of 3D matter-bodies, under gravitational attraction, are again subject to inertial delay. Gravitational actions are applicable only on curved perimeter/surfaces of the most basic 3D matter-particles’ (photons’) cores. Photons are disc-shaped 3D matter-particles of critical radial size, which spin about one of their diameters. Gravitational attraction between two macro bodies takes place only when disc-planes of a number of photons in both macro bodies are in common planes. Constituent photons of a macro body spin about their diameters and move at constant linear speed in circular path within (primary 3D matter-particles of) the macro body. Hence, duration for disc-plane of any one photon in a macro body to be in a common plane with disc-plane of a photon in another macro body is very small and very rare. Hence, magnitude of gravitational attraction between two macro bodies is extremely small compared to the magnitude of gravitational actions. This has prompted us to label gravity as a ‘very weak force’. Although gravitation acts on every single basic 3D matter-particle continuously, gravitational attraction requires presence of more than one basic 3D matter-particles, whose disc planes coincide. Therefore no matter-body can be gravitationally attracted in any direction, unless there is another matter-body in that direction and in its own plane.