Magnitude of gravitational attraction

Magnitude of gravitational attraction between two basic 3D matter-particles (photons) is the resultant of gravitational actions on them, when their core bodies are in the same plane. When their disc-planes do not coincide, magnitude of gravitational attraction between them is minimal. For all practical purposes it may be neglected. As universal medium is unable to act on flat surfaces of a photon (its disc-faces), gravitational attraction does not develop between two photons, whose disc-planes do not coincide. Magnitude of gravitational action is proportional to extent of 2D energy fields, applying the effort. Considering two photons in space, whose disc-planes coincide, extents of 2D energy fields on their outer sides are infinite. Nature of 2D energy fields may be considered to be steady. Hence, gravitational actions on their outer sides are of highest and of constant magnitude. However, extent of 2D energy fields between the two photons depends on the distance between them. Hence, distance between peripheries of two photons becomes a factor that determines magnitude of gravitational attraction between them. As distance between two photons increases, magnitude of gravitational efforts on them, from in between the photons increase and gravitational attraction between the photons reduces. Hence, magnitude of gravitational attraction between two matter-bodies is in inverse proportion to distance between them. Gravitational actions are experienced separately by each of the basic 3D matter-particles (photons) in nature. Combinations of photons, in various groupings, form fundamental particles, atoms and all other macro bodies. Gravitational attraction (between two macro bodies), at any instant, develop only between photons in them; whose disc shaped spinning core (matter) bodies happens to be simultaneously in the same plane. Photons are disc-shaped 3D matter-bodies, spinning about their diameters. Primary 3D matter-particles are formed by binary combinations of two spinning photons moving in common circular paths, at their critical linear speeds. Therefore, frequency and regularity of a pair of (one from each macro body) photons coming in the same plane simultaneously are very small. Gravitational attraction between them takes place only when they are in the same plane. Although macro bodies are constituted by numerous photons, at any instant, very minute fractions of constituent photons from both macro bodies are under mutual gravitational attraction. Magnitude of gravitational attraction between two macro bodies is the average sum total of gravitational attractions between their constituent photons. Therefore, practically, magnitude of gravitational attraction between two macro bodies at any instant is a minute fraction of total gravitational attractions between all their constituent photons being in the same plane. Each photon is separately affected by gravitation. More number of photons in a macro body will increase gravitational attraction on it towards another macro body. Total quantity of matter-content in a macro body is roughly proportional to number of photons in a macro body. Total number of photons in a macro body may be represented by its total 3D matter-content. Therefore, magnitude of gravitational attraction due to any one body is roughly proportional to its total 3D matter-content.

2D energy fields II

Although 3D matter-particles are created out of and by the 2D energy fields, volumetric shape and space enclosed by their bodies are distinct from surrounding 2D energy fields. 2D energy fields maintain constant contact at a 3D matter-body’s surfaces and maintain its three-dimensional status. 2D energy fields, inherently being under compression, exert external pressure on all 3D matter-particles (disturbances) in it. This phenomenon is gravitation. Gravitational effort is enormously stronger than all other manifestations of ‘natural force’. ‘Natural forces’, classified into various types (gravitational attraction, electromagnetic, nuclear, inertial, etc. forces), are derived from gravitational actions. Hence, there is only one type of effort in nature and all ‘natural forces’ are different manifestations of the gravitational efforts. Actions are recognized by inertial motions of corresponding 3D matter-bodies. Magnitudes of gravitational actions are proportional to the extent of 2D energy fields, applying the effort. Since the 2D energy fields extend infinitely, their extents on the outer sides of a pair of 3D matter-bodies are always greater than their extents in between the bodies. Hence, gravitational actions on these bodies are greater on their outer sides. Resultant of gravitational actions on these bodies appears to push them towards each other. This phenomenon appears as the ‘gravitational attraction’ between them. Currently, only this dynamic-part of gravitational action is considered as its sole nature. Static nature of gravitation is more important and basic. Since the gravitational actions are between 3D matter-particles and 2D energy fields, which are in direct contact, they change instantaneously and continuously on changes in parameters of corresponding 3D matter-bodies. Gravitational actions by 2D energy fields are the basis of creation of 3D matter, development of various primary and fundamental matter-particles, formation of atoms/molecules and macro bodies. 2D energy fields create, sustain and gradually destroy all 3D matter-bodies in nature. Nature of distortions in the 2D energy fields, in and about matter-bodies of various sizes and structures, defines their characteristic properties and nature of apparent interactions between them. Gravitational attraction between (macro) matter-bodies compels them to move in space. Hence, all 3D matter-bodies in nature, except stable galaxies (with angular motion), are under linear motion. Galaxies have special mechanism that keeps them in relatively static location within 2D energy fields. As a whole, the universe is steady and perpetual. However, 3D matter and macro bodies in different parts of universe are cyclically destroyed and rebuilt. During destruction, 3D matter is reverted to its basic form of quanta of matter to become part of 2D energy fields. Simultaneously, 3D matter-particles are formed elsewhere in the 2D energy fields through various stages of creation and conversion to produce 3D macro bodies. Every possible plane in space contains a 2D energy field, each. 2D energy fields in different planes, passing through a point, co-exist at that point. 2D energy fields fill the entire space outside the most basic 3D matter-particles. 2D energy fields in all possible planes in three-dimensional space, together, replace the functional entity of ‘space’ with a real entity of universal medium, formed by ‘2D energy fields’. Since a volumetric space is filled with the 2D energy fields and 3D matter-particles in it, the entire volume of space is occupied by quanta of matter, either in the form of 3D matter or as matter in lower spatial dimensions. Total matter-content within this volume of space is comparable with matter-content of a 3D matter-particle occupying similar volume of space. Since the 2D energy fields cannot act among themselves, matter-content enclosed within this volume of space, in the form of 2D energy fields, cannot express itself to 3D rational beings. However, a 3D matter-particle of the same volume can be acted upon by surrounding 2D energy fields. Rational beings recognize (3D) matter-bodies by their expression of actions to an observer. Therefore, even though the matter-content of a volumetric space in the 2D energy fields remains hidden from observers, a 3D matter-particle of similar volume within the 2D energy fields is observable. This is why the 3D matter is considered as real matter and 2D and 1D matter are considered as functional matter in this concept. This hidden part of matter in the universe (occupying nearly whole volume of space) may be understood as ‘dark matter’. 2D energy fields extend in all directions to infinity. It is the ability of rational beings to gather information from a distance that determines limit of universe for them. Although 2D energy fields extents infinitely in all directions, it is the limitation on the ability of rational beings that limits the size of universe for them. This limit is identical in all directions, irrespective of location of observer in space. To any rational being, the universe appears spherical with definite size, which depends on its ability to gather information from. 2D energy fields accounts for creation, sustenance and apparent interactions of three-dimensional matter-bodies. Perpetuity of 2D energy fields bestows the universe with its ‘steady state’ of perpetual existence.

2D energy fields I

2D energy fields are latticework structures formed by (apparently rigid) quanta of matter. Although they are made up of rigid matter-particles, 2D energy fields structurally behaves like an ideal fluid. A 2D energy field is easily deformed due to very small bonding strength at the joints between constituent quanta of matter. Distortions of limited magnitude are tolerated within a 2D energy field’s latticework structure. During distortions: (a). Quanta of matter meeting at a junction point deflect angularly from their stable alignment with respect to each other and/or (b). Quanta of matter in quanta-chains vary their length, depending on the variation of compression from their ends. Angular displacements of quanta of matter at a junction point invoke angular reaction, from latticework, on the constituent quanta of matter to return to their stable relative positions. Similarly, a change in the length of a quantum of matter invokes reaction from latticework to restore its length suitable for stable configuration. Any distortion in a 2D energy field is always opposed by a reaction from its latticework structure. Reaction, within the latticework, tends to restore stability and serenity of a 2D energy field. Thus, it becomes an inherent property of a 2D energy field to strive towards its stable isotropic state. In its stable state, a 2D energy field is isotropic, homogeneous and serene. A 2D energy field, considered as a whole, is steady in space. Small local distortions in it may be transferred within its plane. Due to their steady state, the 2D energy fields can provide an absolute reference in space. Deforming effort always acts against stabilising effort at junction points in the latticework structure. Due to its ability to stabilise itself, a distortion in a 2D energy field cannot remain static or localised; it spreads in the direction of effort that causes the distortion. 3D matter-particles are held suspended by the 2D energy fields within the distorted regions, being transferred. Transfer of distortions in 2D energy fields carry suspended 3D matter-particles in the region along with the moving distortions. Although a moving 3D matter-particle has no relative motion with respect to 2D energy fields in its immediate neighbourhood, it is displaced with respect to the vast expanse of 2D energy fields. Although distortions in 2D energy fields appears to move during their transfer, 2D energy fields as a whole, remains static, homogeneous, isotropic and serene. All free distortions (not associated with 3D macro bodies) and distortions associated with the most basic 3D matter-particles, in 2D energy fields, travel at the highest possible linear speed (speed of light). Magnitude of this speed is limited by ability of 2D energy fields to transfer distortions in them. Distortions, associated with macro bodies/particles, may move at any linear speed, lower than the highest limit. As distortions in 2D energy field move, they carry all 3D matter-particles present in the region, along with them. In case of macro bodies/particles, this phenomenon causes inertial motion. Since, it is the displacement of the distortions, which moves the 3D matter-bodies; there is no relative motion between matter-bodies and surrounding 2D energy fields. It is like, when an object is blown away by wind, there is no relative motion between the object and air in its immediate neighbourhood. But the object has a clear displacement with respect to the large body of air in the region. Therefore, there is no friction between 2D energy fields and a 3D macro body, moving in it. There is no ‘aether drag’ on a macro body, moving through 2D energy fields. Due to latticework structure of a 2D energy field and its inherent property of stabilization (except for gravitational actions in certain cases), deformations in a 2D energy field cannot be contained in any locality. Distortion in a 2D energy field is bound to spread-out in its latticework. If there is an external cause, distortions tend to be transferred in the direction away from the cause, without displacing 2D energy fields. Each latticework square transfers its distortion to the square in front and returns to its original state. Sequential spread of distortion, from one latticework square to the next, introduces a time delay in the development and transfer of distortions. As soon as the cause is removed, latticework structure of the distorted 2D energy field tends to regain its stability. However, distortions contained in the latticework will continue to move in their original direction, without loss of magnitude or change in direction, unless their magnitude or direction are changed/removed by an external agency by introducing deformations of different magnitude and direction in the latticework. These properties of time delay during development and transfer of distortions and constant speed of their transfer through 2D energy fields give rise to the property of inertia, which is presently attributed to matter-bodies. A distorted region of 2D energy fields is a ‘distortion-field’. Due to the latticework structure of a 2D energy field, distortions in it can exist only in a closed-loop-arrangement. Actions by 2D energy fields are results of mechanical movements of its constituent quanta of matter, within their latticework structures. Since distortions in 2D energy fields are the cause of all actions, fundamentally there is only one type of effort in nature, which is currently bifurcated into many types of ‘natural forces’. Manner of distortions in the 2D energy fields determine the type of ‘natural force’ manifested during an interaction. Gravitation and inertia are properties of the 2D energy fields. Displacements of quanta of matter (including the changes in their lengths) are tangible in 2D spatial system. They are real and constitute displacement in space, which is called ‘work-done’. Due to reactions, developed during deformations, 2D energy fields experience stress. Stress, produced by distortions in the latticework structure, is the ‘energy’ associated with the work-done. Rate of magnitude of distortions (work), being introduced into a 2D energy field latticework, is ‘force’ or ‘power’. Ultimately, displacements of ‘disturbances’ (matter-bodies) within 2D energy fields are produced by transfer of latticework distortions from higher distortion-density region to lower distortion-density region. This is the action of an effort. Whichever is the manifestation of effort (as classified into various ‘natural forces’ like: gravitational, electromagnetic, nuclear, inertial, etc.), they all act in similar manner. Thus, fundamentally, there is only one type of effort in nature. ‘Force’ is generally associated with motion of a 3D matter-body and it simply means rate of work done, irrespective of the nature of work or its source.

Ideal universal medium

A ‘universal medium’ that has all desirable properties of aether but has no disadvantages of the same may be proposed to replace (imaginary) functional entities, (like; space, space-time, fields, force-carrying particles, concentrated forms of energy, imaginary entities with negative existence, vibrating strings, mathematical constructs, etc.), currently used to facilitate conceptual explanations on various physical phenomena. Then the terms ‘universal medium’ and ‘space’ can be used synonymously. The term ‘space’ (and other functional entities used in place of space) will then mean the ‘universal medium’ and vice versa. An all-encompassing medium of matter may be envisaged to fill the entire space, outside three-dimensional matter-particles, including inter-particle space in a macro body. To fill entire space is to have positive existence in space in all spatial dimensions, without voids in it. To have positive existence, the universal medium has to be a real object. Reality of an object is provided by its substance. In nature, matter alone can provide substance. Hence this universal medium has to have matter as its content. It can be made up of matter or matter in the form of small matter-particles. To be made up of small matter-particles is to have definite structure. Contents and structure endows an object with its properties. Hence the universal medium has to have definite structure and properties, derived from its constituent matter-particles. A three-dimensional matter-particle contains matter without voids in it. Whole space, occupied by a 3D matter-particle, is filled by matter. Universal medium fills the entire space outside 3D matter-particles. There are no voids in it. Hence, entire space outside 3D matter-particles should also be filled with matter. In order to satisfy this requirement, matter-density of a 3D matter-particle and matter-density of universal medium, outside 3D matter-particle should be the same. Yet, while 3D matter-particles and bodies formed by them are tangible and can be sensed, universal medium and its components should remain intangible and hidden from 3D rational beings. Entire universal medium along with 3D matter-particles in it, together, should form a single block of matter of uniform matter-density and of infinite extent and volume. Matter cannot be compressed beyond the matter-density of a 3D matter-particle or that of universal medium. A matter-body of zero volume and infinite mass (as at the singularity) is impossible to achieve. A universal medium should be made up of real matter-particles and under a definite mechanism of formation. All its actions, interactions and properties will have to be derived from the properties of constituent matter-particles. Since matter alone can form a real universal medium and diverse 3D matter-bodies, all properties of both of these entities should be derived from the most basic matter-particles in nature. No assumed particles, imaginary properties or mysterious interactions should be necessary to understand any physical phenomenon. Actions of basic matter-particles in the universal medium should be able to account for all physical phenomena in nature; from creation and sustenance of universal medium itself to interactions between 3D objects; from creation, sustenance and destruction of fundamental particles to cosmological events; gravity to nuclear interactions; etc. A universal medium should be a self-sustaining materialistic body. By its inherent properties, the universal medium should strive towards homogeneity, isotropy and serenity; all by itself. All ‘natural forces’, apparent interactions between 3D matter-bodies and diverse properties of 3D matter-bodies in various forms should be extensions of these inherent properties. Inherent properties of universal medium should be derived from the properties of its constituent matter-particles. All 3D matter-particles (and superior bodies made up of 3D matter-particles) should exist within the universal medium. Universal medium should serve as interlink between every 3D matter-particle in the universe. Since there are no direct contacts between 3D matter-bodies and all 3D bodies are in contact with universal medium, the universal medium should serve as an intermediary for all apparent interactions between 3D matter-bodies. 3D matter is inert. It cannot cause its own changes or displacements. All actions on 3D matter-bodies or those actions which appear as actions by 3D matter-bodies, in nature, should be performed by universal medium outside 3D matter-particles. Universal medium should contain all 3D matter-bodies and hence form a common link between them. Each 3D matter-body should be acted upon by the universal medium separately. Simultaneous actions by universal medium on different 3D matter-bodies will appear as an interaction between them. Having a universal medium that is in contact with every 3D matter-particle in the universe does away with the illogical assumption of ‘actions at a distance through empty space’. Since the universal medium pre-exists all 3D bodies and no 3D bodies exists outside universal medium, it will fulfill the role of a container that is logically prior to its contents. Since 3D matter-bodies do not exist outside universal medium, the universal medium has to create 3D matter-particles out of itself, sustain them in their free states or in combinations in the form of self-sustaining superior 3D matter-particles and macro bodies and destroy them at appropriate time. To maintain its own stability, it will be necessary for the universal medium to create/destroy 3D matter-bodies cyclically and in different localities in the universe. This should be done by gradually destroying 3D macro bodies in certain regions to revert their matter-contents back into the universal medium, while creating new 3D macro bodies from matter-contents from it, in other regions. This will not only maintain the integrity and stability of universal medium, it will also regulate entropy of the universe within limits. A stable universal medium should be able to sustain a steady-state of universe, perpetually. Rational beings are three-dimensional macro bodies and exist in three-dimensional spatial system. They are able to sense only three-dimensional objects. Since the universal medium or its components remain intangible and hidden to 3D rational beings, they should have their status in one-dimensional or two-dimensional spatial systems. Three-dimensional rational beings will be unable to sense them directly. Although basic matter-particles have real existence in space, magnitudes of their spatial dimensions will be too small to be tangible or sensed by three-dimensional spatial standards. Thus, universal medium or its constituents in 1D or 2D states will remain hidden for all practical purposes. However, it could manifest its presence by actions on 3D matter-bodies. All actions require impetus. Impetus is the ‘ability to do work’. A matter-body contains nothing but matter, which is incapable to do work. Hence, the ability to do work should be stored outside matter-bodies but in association with them. Universal medium, surrounding the 3D matter-particles or in and about a 3D macro matter-body is an ideal place to store the ‘ability to do work’ or the ‘work’ itself. In order to act on matter-bodies, the universal medium should have ability to act. That is it should be able to transfer work from one region to another. All actions are recognised by motion (displacement) of 3D matter-bodies. Macro bodies move by sequential displacements of their matter-particles, starting from the point of application of external effort. Matter-particles, nearest to the ‘force-applying mechanism’, move first. This, in turn, compresses universal medium between the displaced matter-particle and the matter-particle in front. Inherent property of stability causes the compressed part of universal medium to return to its original form by expanding. This expansion can be achieved only by pushing the matter-particles away from each other. Since the matter-particles at the point of application of external effort are displaced forward and held in place, matter-particles in front have no options but to move forward. Similar actions, between matter-particles of a macro body cause its displacement during an action by external effort. ‘Energy-transfer’ in or by macro bodies, essentially requires a universal medium between their constituent matter-particles. ‘Energy’ can also be transferred through space in the form of invisible disturbances, like: ‘electromagnetic waves’, ‘field-disturbances’, etc. Since no displacements of 3D matter-particles are involved in this process, the universal medium, itself, has to act as an agent of ‘energy-transfer’ by its own compression and expansion. A universal medium should be a stable but deformable real entity. Deformations are displacements and hence tangible. Displacements in universal medium are ‘work’ and it is tangible. A tangible entity is real. Hence, work is a real entity. ‘Ability to do work’ could be the stress produced in the universal medium due a strain/distortion in it. Ability to act or to do work is called ‘energy’. Hence, universal medium acts as storage for ‘energy’. Unlike stress, displacement is tangible and hence real. Stress accompanies strain in a stable system. Hence, the strain in the universal medium about a matter-body is the ‘work-done’ and associated stress is its ‘energy’. Energy has no independent existence and it is a functional entity. It appears as a shadow of work-done.

Space

Space is treated differently in different aspects. In physics; the space is usually understood as “the boundless three-dimensional extent of universe, where all material objects and organisms (including rational beings like ourselves) exist and in which objects and events occur”. All material objects in the universe have their relative as well as absolute positions and motions in the space. Space, itself, has no material existence. It cannot provide sense-experience to rational beings. In physical descriptions, only an entity that has physical existence can be sensed or extend or shrink. As no entity with physical existence is mentioned in the definition of space, space is an imaginary (functional) entity. A functional entity has no objective reality and can fulfill only the functions assigned to it by the proposer. It exists only in the mind of proposer and in mathematical analyses. Space is a functional entity that serves the purpose of locating various material bodies in it and where rational beings relate themselves with each other. The extent, outside material bodies, becomes the space. In contemporary physics, the imaginary space is able to dilate or contract as required even without objective reality. Currently, empty space is endowed with many of physical properties that a material object may have while it is also considered as absolute vacuum. All spatial concepts are related to contact-experiences of (matter) bodies. This has made it necessary to envisage an entity independent of bodies and yet embodying their locations. This entity, outside material bodies yet enclosing them, came to be understood as space. When a rational mind envisages a real object, it logically pre-supposes a place for its existence. This is understood not by sensing such a place but by the necessity of a place for the existence for any real body to exist. As a result, the notion of space is somewhat incoherent because it professes to be a container that is logically prior to its contents. Space turns out, in practice, to be merely an indefinitely extensible collection of its contents. Everything that occupies space falls within this wider spatial context. Space denotes a property by virtue of which different bodies occupy different positions in the universe. The possibility of arranging an unlimited number of matter-bodies next to one another denotes that the space is infinite in its extent. However far one can go, matter-bodies are there and beyond. If the space, outside the most basic 3D matter-particles, is filled entirely by a real universal medium, the medium and the space become synonymous. Space is no more an imaginary void, but a real medium, which contains all three-dimensional bodies in nature. Now, since the universal medium has a structure and constituents, it is able to deform and undergo all actions normally the imaginary space is assumed to perform. The universal medium can also substitute for various types of fields, used in present theories. Since the universal medium encloses all three-dimensional bodies, it acts as a direct link between any two such bodies and the assumption of ‘action at a distance through empty space’ is not required any more. The concept, proposed in the book, ‘MATTER (re-examined)’, considers space as an imaginary container, envisaged by rational beings as and when they think about three-dimensional material objects. It extends infinitely in all directions from the observer. In order to make space a real entity, it has to have substance that provides it with objective reality and positive existence. In material world, existence of matter is nearest to absolute truth. Therefore, in order to be real, space has to be made up of matter. When space is real, it can behave like any other real entity.