Spatial dimensions

Although modern physicists usually consider space in association with time to be part of a boundless four-dimensional continuum known as space-time, physical space is often conceived in three linear dimensions. Currently, the standard spatial interval, called a meter, is defined as the distance traveled by light in vacuum during a time interval of exactly 1/299,792,458 of a second. Use of circular logic to define time is usually ignored. In order to relate one object to another (or a point in a body to another point) or locations of a body at different intervals, we use spatial dimensions. They indicate (quantify) extent of real space (universal medium) between two points. Although there are different systems of spatial-dimensions, the most convenient and widely used spatial dimensional system is that of ‘three-dimensional’. For this, we divide space about a reference point into eight parts by three mutually perpendicular planes and relate location of a point in space with each of these planes (length, breadth and depth). In order to have spatial dimensional systems with more than three, we should be able to divide space into more parts by mutually perpendicular planes through a reference point. This is quite impossible. Three-dimensional spatial system includes both, two-dimensional and single-dimensional systems, as its integral parts. See description of ‘space’.

Ideal universal medium

A ‘universal medium’ that has all desirable properties of aether but has no disadvantages of the same may be proposed to replace (imaginary) functional entities, (like; space, space-time, fields, force-carrying particles, concentrated forms of energy, imaginary entities with negative existence, vibrating strings, mathematical constructs, etc.), currently used to facilitate conceptual explanations on various physical phenomena. Then the terms ‘universal medium’ and ‘space’ can be used synonymously. The term ‘space’ (and other functional entities used in place of space) will then mean the ‘universal medium’ and vice versa. An all-encompassing medium of matter may be envisaged to fill the entire space, outside three-dimensional matter-particles, including inter-particle space in a macro body. To fill entire space is to have positive existence in space in all spatial dimensions, without voids in it. To have positive existence, the universal medium has to be a real object. Reality of an object is provided by its substance. In nature, matter alone can provide substance. Hence this universal medium has to have matter as its content. It can be made up of matter or matter in the form of small matter-particles. To be made up of small matter-particles is to have definite structure. Contents and structure endows an object with its properties. Hence the universal medium has to have definite structure and properties, derived from its constituent matter-particles. A three-dimensional matter-particle contains matter without voids in it. Whole space, occupied by a 3D matter-particle, is filled by matter. Universal medium fills the entire space outside 3D matter-particles. There are no voids in it. Hence, entire space outside 3D matter-particles should also be filled with matter. In order to satisfy this requirement, matter-density of a 3D matter-particle and matter-density of universal medium, outside 3D matter-particle should be the same. Yet, while 3D matter-particles and bodies formed by them are tangible and can be sensed, universal medium and its components should remain intangible and hidden from 3D rational beings. Entire universal medium along with 3D matter-particles in it, together, should form a single block of matter of uniform matter-density and of infinite extent and volume. Matter cannot be compressed beyond the matter-density of a 3D matter-particle or that of universal medium. A matter-body of zero volume and infinite mass (as at the singularity) is impossible to achieve. A universal medium should be made up of real matter-particles and under a definite mechanism of formation. All its actions, interactions and properties will have to be derived from the properties of constituent matter-particles. Since matter alone can form a real universal medium and diverse 3D matter-bodies, all properties of both of these entities should be derived from the most basic matter-particles in nature. No assumed particles, imaginary properties or mysterious interactions should be necessary to understand any physical phenomenon. Actions of basic matter-particles in the universal medium should be able to account for all physical phenomena in nature; from creation and sustenance of universal medium itself to interactions between 3D objects; from creation, sustenance and destruction of fundamental particles to cosmological events; gravity to nuclear interactions; etc. A universal medium should be a self-sustaining materialistic body. By its inherent properties, the universal medium should strive towards homogeneity, isotropy and serenity; all by itself. All ‘natural forces’, apparent interactions between 3D matter-bodies and diverse properties of 3D matter-bodies in various forms should be extensions of these inherent properties. Inherent properties of universal medium should be derived from the properties of its constituent matter-particles. All 3D matter-particles (and superior bodies made up of 3D matter-particles) should exist within the universal medium. Universal medium should serve as interlink between every 3D matter-particle in the universe. Since there are no direct contacts between 3D matter-bodies and all 3D bodies are in contact with universal medium, the universal medium should serve as an intermediary for all apparent interactions between 3D matter-bodies. 3D matter is inert. It cannot cause its own changes or displacements. All actions on 3D matter-bodies or those actions which appear as actions by 3D matter-bodies, in nature, should be performed by universal medium outside 3D matter-particles. Universal medium should contain all 3D matter-bodies and hence form a common link between them. Each 3D matter-body should be acted upon by the universal medium separately. Simultaneous actions by universal medium on different 3D matter-bodies will appear as an interaction between them. Having a universal medium that is in contact with every 3D matter-particle in the universe does away with the illogical assumption of ‘actions at a distance through empty space’. Since the universal medium pre-exists all 3D bodies and no 3D bodies exists outside universal medium, it will fulfill the role of a container that is logically prior to its contents. Since 3D matter-bodies do not exist outside universal medium, the universal medium has to create 3D matter-particles out of itself, sustain them in their free states or in combinations in the form of self-sustaining superior 3D matter-particles and macro bodies and destroy them at appropriate time. To maintain its own stability, it will be necessary for the universal medium to create/destroy 3D matter-bodies cyclically and in different localities in the universe. This should be done by gradually destroying 3D macro bodies in certain regions to revert their matter-contents back into the universal medium, while creating new 3D macro bodies from matter-contents from it, in other regions. This will not only maintain the integrity and stability of universal medium, it will also regulate entropy of the universe within limits. A stable universal medium should be able to sustain a steady-state of universe, perpetually. Rational beings are three-dimensional macro bodies and exist in three-dimensional spatial system. They are able to sense only three-dimensional objects. Since the universal medium or its components remain intangible and hidden to 3D rational beings, they should have their status in one-dimensional or two-dimensional spatial systems. Three-dimensional rational beings will be unable to sense them directly. Although basic matter-particles have real existence in space, magnitudes of their spatial dimensions will be too small to be tangible or sensed by three-dimensional spatial standards. Thus, universal medium or its constituents in 1D or 2D states will remain hidden for all practical purposes. However, it could manifest its presence by actions on 3D matter-bodies. All actions require impetus. Impetus is the ‘ability to do work’. A matter-body contains nothing but matter, which is incapable to do work. Hence, the ability to do work should be stored outside matter-bodies but in association with them. Universal medium, surrounding the 3D matter-particles or in and about a 3D macro matter-body is an ideal place to store the ‘ability to do work’ or the ‘work’ itself. In order to act on matter-bodies, the universal medium should have ability to act. That is it should be able to transfer work from one region to another. All actions are recognised by motion (displacement) of 3D matter-bodies. Macro bodies move by sequential displacements of their matter-particles, starting from the point of application of external effort. Matter-particles, nearest to the ‘force-applying mechanism’, move first. This, in turn, compresses universal medium between the displaced matter-particle and the matter-particle in front. Inherent property of stability causes the compressed part of universal medium to return to its original form by expanding. This expansion can be achieved only by pushing the matter-particles away from each other. Since the matter-particles at the point of application of external effort are displaced forward and held in place, matter-particles in front have no options but to move forward. Similar actions, between matter-particles of a macro body cause its displacement during an action by external effort. ‘Energy-transfer’ in or by macro bodies, essentially requires a universal medium between their constituent matter-particles. ‘Energy’ can also be transferred through space in the form of invisible disturbances, like: ‘electromagnetic waves’, ‘field-disturbances’, etc. Since no displacements of 3D matter-particles are involved in this process, the universal medium, itself, has to act as an agent of ‘energy-transfer’ by its own compression and expansion. A universal medium should be a stable but deformable real entity. Deformations are displacements and hence tangible. Displacements in universal medium are ‘work’ and it is tangible. A tangible entity is real. Hence, work is a real entity. ‘Ability to do work’ could be the stress produced in the universal medium due a strain/distortion in it. Ability to act or to do work is called ‘energy’. Hence, universal medium acts as storage for ‘energy’. Unlike stress, displacement is tangible and hence real. Stress accompanies strain in a stable system. Hence, the strain in the universal medium about a matter-body is the ‘work-done’ and associated stress is its ‘energy’. Energy has no independent existence and it is a functional entity. It appears as a shadow of work-done.

Aether as a substitute for space

There is no logical argument for a definition of space based on imaginary concepts. That is why, from early time, it was believed that a real entity, namely (different kinds of) aether, filled the entire space. In such theories, aether (with real existence) replaced non-existent space by filling it entirely. Mode of filling or mechanism of existence of these entities were never discussed. It was simply believed that the undefined aether work in place of unacceptable space. Therefore, all properties originally assigned to the functional entity of space could become properties of aether, a real entity. Although the aether had an ambiguous form but it was regarded as a real entity. Since the aether was real, it could deform, move or otherwise interact with other 3D material objects. This seems to have made all actions more logical and easy to understand. Unfortunately, no one could describe a satisfactory structure or properties for any of the different kinds of aether, proposed. Different types of aether were envisaged at different times in the past. The aether was assumed to be weightless, transparent, frictionless, chemically or physically undetectable and literally permeating all matter and space. ‘Aether theories’ met with increasing difficulties as the nature of light and the structure of matter became better defined, even if it was on imaginary basis. Since there was no accepted definition of aether, scientists concentrated their effort to find and measure an effect, the aether may make on other 3D macro bodies. For this they assumed, when a large macro body moves through aether, the macro body should essentially experience a drag due to the friction between the two. Aether theory was seriously weakened (1881) by the Michelson-Morley experiment, which was designed specifically to detect resistance to the motion of the Earth through the ether. Experiments showed that there was no such tangible effect. Finally, when aether’s existence could not be proved experimentally, by experiments based on illogical theories, majority of scientists abandoned the concept of (real) aether. They returned to more mysterious concepts of space and fields. Aether could have won the day if it could be explained that it is a real entity with definite structure, in direct contact with matter-bodies and it could move enclosed matter-bodies without appreciably moving itself but at the same time without any relative motion between moving body and the aether.

Space

Space is treated differently in different aspects. In physics; the space is usually understood as “the boundless three-dimensional extent of universe, where all material objects and organisms (including rational beings like ourselves) exist and in which objects and events occur”. All material objects in the universe have their relative as well as absolute positions and motions in the space. Space, itself, has no material existence. It cannot provide sense-experience to rational beings. In physical descriptions, only an entity that has physical existence can be sensed or extend or shrink. As no entity with physical existence is mentioned in the definition of space, space is an imaginary (functional) entity. A functional entity has no objective reality and can fulfill only the functions assigned to it by the proposer. It exists only in the mind of proposer and in mathematical analyses. Space is a functional entity that serves the purpose of locating various material bodies in it and where rational beings relate themselves with each other. The extent, outside material bodies, becomes the space. In contemporary physics, the imaginary space is able to dilate or contract as required even without objective reality. Currently, empty space is endowed with many of physical properties that a material object may have while it is also considered as absolute vacuum. All spatial concepts are related to contact-experiences of (matter) bodies. This has made it necessary to envisage an entity independent of bodies and yet embodying their locations. This entity, outside material bodies yet enclosing them, came to be understood as space. When a rational mind envisages a real object, it logically pre-supposes a place for its existence. This is understood not by sensing such a place but by the necessity of a place for the existence for any real body to exist. As a result, the notion of space is somewhat incoherent because it professes to be a container that is logically prior to its contents. Space turns out, in practice, to be merely an indefinitely extensible collection of its contents. Everything that occupies space falls within this wider spatial context. Space denotes a property by virtue of which different bodies occupy different positions in the universe. The possibility of arranging an unlimited number of matter-bodies next to one another denotes that the space is infinite in its extent. However far one can go, matter-bodies are there and beyond. If the space, outside the most basic 3D matter-particles, is filled entirely by a real universal medium, the medium and the space become synonymous. Space is no more an imaginary void, but a real medium, which contains all three-dimensional bodies in nature. Now, since the universal medium has a structure and constituents, it is able to deform and undergo all actions normally the imaginary space is assumed to perform. The universal medium can also substitute for various types of fields, used in present theories. Since the universal medium encloses all three-dimensional bodies, it acts as a direct link between any two such bodies and the assumption of ‘action at a distance through empty space’ is not required any more. The concept, proposed in the book, ‘MATTER (re-examined)’, considers space as an imaginary container, envisaged by rational beings as and when they think about three-dimensional material objects. It extends infinitely in all directions from the observer. In order to make space a real entity, it has to have substance that provides it with objective reality and positive existence. In material world, existence of matter is nearest to absolute truth. Therefore, in order to be real, space has to be made up of matter. When space is real, it can behave like any other real entity.