Properties of 2D energy fields

A 2D energy field is a two-dimensional entity. It has only length and breadth as its fundamental spatial dimensions. A real entity in space essentially exists in all spatial dimensions of the space. Hence, however small its third spatial dimensional measurement may be, a 2D energy field has its existence in the third spatial dimension also. A volumetric space is made up of great many parallel planes, in contact. If a plane is considered to have no thickness, any number of parallel planes cannot constitute a volumetric space of any thickness. Since 2D energy fields occupy volumetric space, each 2D energy field has certain thickness and there is a definite separation between two 2D energy fields in adjacent parallel planes. Parameters of a 2D energy field or other 2D bodies can be accurately determined only after evolving a mathematical system that can measure thickness of a plane or breadth and thickness of a straight line. Combination of 2D energy fields (universal medium), as envisaged in ‘Hypothesis on MATTER’ [described in the book, ‘MATTER (Re-examined)’] as a substitute for space, has the following inherent properties: These properties are derived from inherent properties of their constituent quanta of matter and mechanical structure of their latticework formations. 2D energy fields are two-dimensional entities made up of single-dimensional quanta of matter. Each 2D energy field exists and acts in its own plane. Only one 2D energy field exists in any one plane and all possible planes in all directions in 3D space contain one 2D energy field each. 2D energy fields in different planes, passing through a point in space, co-exist at the point. However, each 2D energy field can act only in its own plane. Quanta of matter in a 2D energy field are held under compression from their ends, in quanta-chains situated in perpendicular directions, crossing at junction points between quanta of matter. In the stable state of a 2D energy field, constituent quanta of matter form sides of perfect squares in its latticework structure. A change from the stable state produces restoring reactions in the latticework structure. 2D energy fields are self-sustaining entities. They strive to sustain their integrity, stability, homogeneity, isotropy and serenity. Each 2D energy field has an adhesion within itself and tends to maintain its continuity in the plane of its existence. Tendency of 2D energy fields to close-in any gap in their structure produces phenomenon of gravitation. 2D energy fields fill the entire space outside the most basic 3D matter-particles. Each 2D energy field extends indefinitely in all directions in its plane. Since there are no voids (or limits to the extents of 2D energy fields), no 3D matter-particles can exist outside 2D energy fields. All higher-dimensional spatial systems exist within the 2D energy fields and all higher-dimensional matter-particles are disturbances with respect to 2D energy fields. 2D energy fields tend to reduce disturbances in them to minimum; either by reducing their sizes by shaping them circular and compressing to smaller size and/or by ejecting the disturbances from the site of their creation. All 3D matter-particles are created from, sustained by and reverted back into 2D energy fields. 2D energy fields provide an all encompassing universal medium for all 3D matter-bodies and apparent interactions between them. On the whole, the 2D energy fields are perpetual and steady in space. No new 2D energy field is ever produced. They provide an absolute reference. Region of 2D energy fields, about a 3D matter-body, stores work in the form of distortions (and energy in the form of stress, associated with the distortions) to sustain integrity and stability of the 3D matter-body and its current state (of motion). Distortions (work-done) and corresponding energy in two 2D energy fields cannot interact directly. Transfer of distortions or interactions between distortion fields are limited to the plane of each 2D energy field. Simultaneous actions in many planes appear as an action in 3D spatial system. 3D matter-particles are displaced in space by the transfer of distortions in steady 2D energy fields. Absolute motions of matter-bodies are with respect to the steady 2D energy fields. 3D matter-bodies are moved by 2D energy fields rather than the bodies move through 2D energy fields. Latticework structure of a 2D energy field causes sequential development of distortions in neighbouring latticework squares. Distortions, once developed, remain permanently within the 2D energy field, unless removed by external action. These phenomena give rise to the property of inertia. Interactions between two points in a 2D energy field are confined to the plane containing both the points. [In order to avoid theoretical possibility of more than one 2D energy field passing through two points, here, a point should be understood to be having the smallest area and be a part of one 2D energy field plane. So that, there can be only one 2D energy field passing through any two coplanar points].

2D energy fields II

Although 3D matter-particles are created out of and by the 2D energy fields, volumetric shape and space enclosed by their bodies are distinct from surrounding 2D energy fields. 2D energy fields maintain constant contact at a 3D matter-body’s surfaces and maintain its three-dimensional status. 2D energy fields, inherently being under compression, exert external pressure on all 3D matter-particles (disturbances) in it. This phenomenon is gravitation. Gravitational effort is enormously stronger than all other manifestations of ‘natural force’. ‘Natural forces’, classified into various types (gravitational attraction, electromagnetic, nuclear, inertial, etc. forces), are derived from gravitational actions. Hence, there is only one type of effort in nature and all ‘natural forces’ are different manifestations of the gravitational efforts. Actions are recognized by inertial motions of corresponding 3D matter-bodies. Magnitudes of gravitational actions are proportional to the extent of 2D energy fields, applying the effort. Since the 2D energy fields extend infinitely, their extents on the outer sides of a pair of 3D matter-bodies are always greater than their extents in between the bodies. Hence, gravitational actions on these bodies are greater on their outer sides. Resultant of gravitational actions on these bodies appears to push them towards each other. This phenomenon appears as the ‘gravitational attraction’ between them. Currently, only this dynamic-part of gravitational action is considered as its sole nature. Static nature of gravitation is more important and basic. Since the gravitational actions are between 3D matter-particles and 2D energy fields, which are in direct contact, they change instantaneously and continuously on changes in parameters of corresponding 3D matter-bodies. Gravitational actions by 2D energy fields are the basis of creation of 3D matter, development of various primary and fundamental matter-particles, formation of atoms/molecules and macro bodies. 2D energy fields create, sustain and gradually destroy all 3D matter-bodies in nature. Nature of distortions in the 2D energy fields, in and about matter-bodies of various sizes and structures, defines their characteristic properties and nature of apparent interactions between them. Gravitational attraction between (macro) matter-bodies compels them to move in space. Hence, all 3D matter-bodies in nature, except stable galaxies (with angular motion), are under linear motion. Galaxies have special mechanism that keeps them in relatively static location within 2D energy fields. As a whole, the universe is steady and perpetual. However, 3D matter and macro bodies in different parts of universe are cyclically destroyed and rebuilt. During destruction, 3D matter is reverted to its basic form of quanta of matter to become part of 2D energy fields. Simultaneously, 3D matter-particles are formed elsewhere in the 2D energy fields through various stages of creation and conversion to produce 3D macro bodies. Every possible plane in space contains a 2D energy field, each. 2D energy fields in different planes, passing through a point, co-exist at that point. 2D energy fields fill the entire space outside the most basic 3D matter-particles. 2D energy fields in all possible planes in three-dimensional space, together, replace the functional entity of ‘space’ with a real entity of universal medium, formed by ‘2D energy fields’. Since a volumetric space is filled with the 2D energy fields and 3D matter-particles in it, the entire volume of space is occupied by quanta of matter, either in the form of 3D matter or as matter in lower spatial dimensions. Total matter-content within this volume of space is comparable with matter-content of a 3D matter-particle occupying similar volume of space. Since the 2D energy fields cannot act among themselves, matter-content enclosed within this volume of space, in the form of 2D energy fields, cannot express itself to 3D rational beings. However, a 3D matter-particle of the same volume can be acted upon by surrounding 2D energy fields. Rational beings recognize (3D) matter-bodies by their expression of actions to an observer. Therefore, even though the matter-content of a volumetric space in the 2D energy fields remains hidden from observers, a 3D matter-particle of similar volume within the 2D energy fields is observable. This is why the 3D matter is considered as real matter and 2D and 1D matter are considered as functional matter in this concept. This hidden part of matter in the universe (occupying nearly whole volume of space) may be understood as ‘dark matter’. 2D energy fields extend in all directions to infinity. It is the ability of rational beings to gather information from a distance that determines limit of universe for them. Although 2D energy fields extents infinitely in all directions, it is the limitation on the ability of rational beings that limits the size of universe for them. This limit is identical in all directions, irrespective of location of observer in space. To any rational being, the universe appears spherical with definite size, which depends on its ability to gather information from. 2D energy fields accounts for creation, sustenance and apparent interactions of three-dimensional matter-bodies. Perpetuity of 2D energy fields bestows the universe with its ‘steady state’ of perpetual existence.

2D energy fields I

2D energy fields are latticework structures formed by (apparently rigid) quanta of matter. Although they are made up of rigid matter-particles, 2D energy fields structurally behaves like an ideal fluid. A 2D energy field is easily deformed due to very small bonding strength at the joints between constituent quanta of matter. Distortions of limited magnitude are tolerated within a 2D energy field’s latticework structure. During distortions: (a). Quanta of matter meeting at a junction point deflect angularly from their stable alignment with respect to each other and/or (b). Quanta of matter in quanta-chains vary their length, depending on the variation of compression from their ends. Angular displacements of quanta of matter at a junction point invoke angular reaction, from latticework, on the constituent quanta of matter to return to their stable relative positions. Similarly, a change in the length of a quantum of matter invokes reaction from latticework to restore its length suitable for stable configuration. Any distortion in a 2D energy field is always opposed by a reaction from its latticework structure. Reaction, within the latticework, tends to restore stability and serenity of a 2D energy field. Thus, it becomes an inherent property of a 2D energy field to strive towards its stable isotropic state. In its stable state, a 2D energy field is isotropic, homogeneous and serene. A 2D energy field, considered as a whole, is steady in space. Small local distortions in it may be transferred within its plane. Due to their steady state, the 2D energy fields can provide an absolute reference in space. Deforming effort always acts against stabilising effort at junction points in the latticework structure. Due to its ability to stabilise itself, a distortion in a 2D energy field cannot remain static or localised; it spreads in the direction of effort that causes the distortion. 3D matter-particles are held suspended by the 2D energy fields within the distorted regions, being transferred. Transfer of distortions in 2D energy fields carry suspended 3D matter-particles in the region along with the moving distortions. Although a moving 3D matter-particle has no relative motion with respect to 2D energy fields in its immediate neighbourhood, it is displaced with respect to the vast expanse of 2D energy fields. Although distortions in 2D energy fields appears to move during their transfer, 2D energy fields as a whole, remains static, homogeneous, isotropic and serene. All free distortions (not associated with 3D macro bodies) and distortions associated with the most basic 3D matter-particles, in 2D energy fields, travel at the highest possible linear speed (speed of light). Magnitude of this speed is limited by ability of 2D energy fields to transfer distortions in them. Distortions, associated with macro bodies/particles, may move at any linear speed, lower than the highest limit. As distortions in 2D energy field move, they carry all 3D matter-particles present in the region, along with them. In case of macro bodies/particles, this phenomenon causes inertial motion. Since, it is the displacement of the distortions, which moves the 3D matter-bodies; there is no relative motion between matter-bodies and surrounding 2D energy fields. It is like, when an object is blown away by wind, there is no relative motion between the object and air in its immediate neighbourhood. But the object has a clear displacement with respect to the large body of air in the region. Therefore, there is no friction between 2D energy fields and a 3D macro body, moving in it. There is no ‘aether drag’ on a macro body, moving through 2D energy fields. Due to latticework structure of a 2D energy field and its inherent property of stabilization (except for gravitational actions in certain cases), deformations in a 2D energy field cannot be contained in any locality. Distortion in a 2D energy field is bound to spread-out in its latticework. If there is an external cause, distortions tend to be transferred in the direction away from the cause, without displacing 2D energy fields. Each latticework square transfers its distortion to the square in front and returns to its original state. Sequential spread of distortion, from one latticework square to the next, introduces a time delay in the development and transfer of distortions. As soon as the cause is removed, latticework structure of the distorted 2D energy field tends to regain its stability. However, distortions contained in the latticework will continue to move in their original direction, without loss of magnitude or change in direction, unless their magnitude or direction are changed/removed by an external agency by introducing deformations of different magnitude and direction in the latticework. These properties of time delay during development and transfer of distortions and constant speed of their transfer through 2D energy fields give rise to the property of inertia, which is presently attributed to matter-bodies. A distorted region of 2D energy fields is a ‘distortion-field’. Due to the latticework structure of a 2D energy field, distortions in it can exist only in a closed-loop-arrangement. Actions by 2D energy fields are results of mechanical movements of its constituent quanta of matter, within their latticework structures. Since distortions in 2D energy fields are the cause of all actions, fundamentally there is only one type of effort in nature, which is currently bifurcated into many types of ‘natural forces’. Manner of distortions in the 2D energy fields determine the type of ‘natural force’ manifested during an interaction. Gravitation and inertia are properties of the 2D energy fields. Displacements of quanta of matter (including the changes in their lengths) are tangible in 2D spatial system. They are real and constitute displacement in space, which is called ‘work-done’. Due to reactions, developed during deformations, 2D energy fields experience stress. Stress, produced by distortions in the latticework structure, is the ‘energy’ associated with the work-done. Rate of magnitude of distortions (work), being introduced into a 2D energy field latticework, is ‘force’ or ‘power’. Ultimately, displacements of ‘disturbances’ (matter-bodies) within 2D energy fields are produced by transfer of latticework distortions from higher distortion-density region to lower distortion-density region. This is the action of an effort. Whichever is the manifestation of effort (as classified into various ‘natural forces’ like: gravitational, electromagnetic, nuclear, inertial, etc.), they all act in similar manner. Thus, fundamentally, there is only one type of effort in nature. ‘Force’ is generally associated with motion of a 3D matter-body and it simply means rate of work done, irrespective of the nature of work or its source.

Extent of lattice structure

As there are infinite number of quanta of matter in universe and the universe extents to infinity, lattice structure in each plane extents to infinity in all directions. Lattice structures by quanta of matter are always present in their own planes. No new lattice structures are ever formed. Although lattice structures of quanta of matter may occasionally breakdown locally, on the whole, they are perpetual structures in space. Lattice structures in different planes and crossing each other co-exist at points of their crossings. As lattice structures by quanta of matter are present in all possible planes in space and each lattice structure extents infinitely in its plane, together, they fill entire space without void. Lattice structures in all planes together forms a ‘universal medium’ that fills the entire space. This entity is similar to aether in aether-theories. In order to distinguish this universal medium from others, like; aethers in different aether-theories, force fields, etc., it may be called ‘2D energy fields’. 2D energy fields and space become synonymous. Undefined functional space is replaced by a universal medium made of real matter. Theoretically, few quanta of matter are able to form very vast latticework structure, however practically, there are far too many quanta of matter in each quanta-chain. Due to various occasions available for their local breakdowns and availability of free quanta of matter near such breakdowns, there are plenty of opportunities for free quanta of matter to infiltrate into quanta-chains of lattice structures. Such infiltrations cause excess number of quanta of matter in each quanta-chain. Changes in quanta-density of 2D energy fields are bound to vary their ability and actions. We can say that present quanta-density in 2D energy fields are suitable for current state of universe. Presence of excess number of quanta of matter in a quanta-chain necessitates constituent quanta of matter to be pressed from their ends, against their self-elongating tendency. Each quantum of matter grows into second spatial dimension, while its length is reduced, until external pressure can be balanced by reaction from self-extension. Therefore, every quanta-chain and (in turn) whole of lattice structure are constantly under compression. Pressure exerted by a compressed 2D energy field (its natural stable state) on any 3D matter-body within a 2D energy field may be called ‘gravitation’.

Stability of lattice structure

Every junction in a stable latticework structure is made up of four quanta of matter each. Each quantum of matter tends to remain angularly equidistant from its neighbors. Each latticework square has four quanta of matter as its sides. Apparent repulsion between their bodies (as a result of adhesion between quanta of matter in contact at common junction point) tends to maintain shape of latticework square. Deformation of a latticework square changes its shape. One or more sides of the latticework square may tend to elongate. Since the quanta in the lattice structure are already under compression and their lengths are controlled by the compression, lengths of sides of a deformed latticework square will be automatically adjusted to suit the required shape. Similarly, if it is required to reduce lengths of latticework square’s sides, excess pressure from ends of quanta of matter will be able to reduce their lengths to suit the shape of latticework square. A reduction in length of a quantum of matter will be compensated by increase in its width. An increase in its length will be accompanied by a reduction in its width. At a stable junction point, with four quanta of matter, each quantum of matter is under stress to move in line with its neighbor and form quanta-chain. Such motion is prevented by presence of four quanta of matter at the junction. Stress between neighboring quanta of matter tends to keep angle between neighboring quanta of matter at equal value. If left free, a latticework square will automatically seek its most stable state in the shape of a perfect square. This is possible only if all sides of a latticework square are formed by quanta of matter of somewhat equal matter-content. If deformation of latticework square is too great, number of quanta of matter at its junctions may be increased to accommodate more quanta of matter or reduced to have lesser number of quanta of matter. In these cases, geometrical shape of latticework squares may be altered temporarily. In this state, the lattice structure remains under stress as long as the deformation remains in the lattice structure. Tendency of latticework squares and hence that of lattice structure to strive towards stable state, endows a lattice structure with its inherent property to strive towards isotropic, homogeneous and serene state. All deformations are opposed by equal and opposite stabilizing efforts.

Formation of lattice structure

If there are more than two quanta of matter in contact with each other (in the same spatial dimension, at a place), interactions due to adhesion between their matter-contents at points of direct contacts between them, may move all quanta of matter so that their ends meet at a point in space to form a junction. Inter-quanta adhesion will further move the quanta of matter angularly in common plane, so that all quanta of matter meeting at a junction settle at equal angular difference between adjacent quanta of matter. Each quantum of matter at every junction is capable to join another junction at its other end. Only stipulation is that all quanta of matter, joined by junctions are in the same spatial plane. Once, any two quanta of matter form a junction, all further additions to the junction will be in the same spatial plane. First two quanta of matter, which initiates build up of quanta-chain, determine spatial plane of all associated structures. Numerous junctions, formed at both ends of associated quanta of matter, form a latticework structure in its plane. Junctions in a regular latticework have to have equal numbers of quanta of matter and they should be of equal lengths. Geometrically, each junction may have three, four or six quanta of matter each. Sections of latticework structure formed by junctions with three quanta of matter each appear in the shape of series of hexagons. They are structurally very unstable and flaccid. This structure is easily destroyed during deformations of latticework structure. Sections of latticework structure formed by junctions with four quanta of matter each appear in the shape series of of squares. They are structurally stable and yielding. This structure can withstand reasonable deformation and return to its stable state easily. Sections of latticework structure formed by junctions with six quanta of matter each appear in the shape of series of triangles. They are structurally very stable and rigid. This structure prevents all reasonable deforming efforts. Nature chooses latticework structure that is stable and yielding. Latticework structure with four quanta of matter, to every stable junction, is superior construction. Each section of this latticework structure, which may be called a latticework square, has one quantum of matter as its side. In its stable and homogeneous state, sides of a latticework square are of equal length. During deformations, sides of latticework squares may change their lengths and the square may change its shape accordingly.

Quanta-chain

During lengthening process of a free quantum of matter, its ends may come in contact with other quanta of matter, which happens to be in its spatial dimension. Under such condition, the lengthening process of the quantum of matter is restricted, in the direction of the second quantum of matter. Matter-contents of the quanta of matter come in direct contact in the same spatial dimension. As magnitude of adhesion between their matter-contents (across their perimeters) is less than the magnitude of adhesion within each of their matter-contents, their matter-contents cannot merge. [Adhesion between contacting quanta of matter is due to their continuous movements and changes of directions]. If a lengthening-quantum of matter encounters other quanta of matter in other spatial dimensions, it will not be restricted in its growth. Adhesive effort between matter-contents of two quanta of matter (in direct contact) tends to keep the quanta of matter, pressing into each other. If the direction of this adhesive effort is perpendicular to the body of any one of the quanta of matter, they will remain in an equilibrium state. Should the direction of adhesive effort differ from being perpendicular to the body of any one of the quanta of matter, it may be considered as combination of two resolved components. One component, which is perpendicular to the body of any one of quanta of matter, keeps the quanta of matter pressed into each other. While, other component of adhesive effort tends to move one quantum of matter (whose body is at an angle to the body of the other) towards one end of the other quantum of matter. This is the most primary instance of induced motion in nature. Adhesive effort between two quanta of matter (in direct contact) tends to move either one or both of quanta of matter, towards each other’s ends, where together the quanta of matter form a junction and attempt to mutually turn their bodies to bring their (single-dimensional) bodies in a straight line. In this manner, free quanta of matter in space tend to form single-dimensional chains. Due to frequent ruptures of these quanta-chains and availability of free quanta of matter (in space) to migrate into ruptured 1D quanta-chain, there are far too many quanta of matter in any single dimensional quanta-chain. Excess number of quanta of matter in a quanta-chain compels all constituent quanta of matter in the quanta-chain to be held at reduced lengths in their single-dimensional status. Tendency of quanta of matter in the chain, to grow in length, keeps all constituent quanta of matter in quanta-chains under compression from their ends. Normally (in current state of universe), quanta of matter in a quanta-chain are maintained at the brink of their growth into second spatial dimension. Should a discontinuity develop in the quanta-chain, inherent property of constituent quanta of matter enable quanta-chain to grow in length. Thus, it becomes an inherent property of quanta-chains to grow (lengthen) into any discontinuity in its spatial dimension.

Co-existence of quanta of matter at a point

A quantum of matter has certain matter-content. Matter is continuous and incompressible. Since matter is the substance, a quantum of matter has objective (real) existence in space. A quantum of matter can express its individuality only in spatial dimension(s) of its existence. No two real entities can exist in the same volumetric space. Therefore, no two quanta of matter can exist in the same space in the same spatial dimension(s). However, quanta of matter in different spatial dimensions but passing through the same point, in space, coexist at the point. Practically, a quantum of matter (in any dimensional status), exists in all three spatial dimensions. When its measurement in any one spatial dimension is too small to be intelligibly measured by 3D beings, we must say that the quantum of matter exists only in two spatial dimensions. The quantum of matter may be qualified as a two-dimensional object. Similarly, when its measurements in any two spatial dimensions are too small to be intelligibly measured by 3D beings, we must say that the quantum of matter exists only in one spatial dimension. The quantum of matter may be qualified as a single-dimensional object. A quantum of matter in its free state, tends to grow and exists only in one spatial dimension. External pressure from ends of a 1D quantum of matter can reduce its measurements in first-spatial-dimension and make its matter-body to grow into second-spatial-dimension, until it becomes a perfect circle in a plane. Further, if identical external pressure is applied all around the periphery of a 2D quantum of matter (in its second-spatial-dimensional state), its matter-body is compelled to grow into third-spatial-dimension, while reducing measurements in other two spatial dimensions. Growth into third-spatial-dimension will continue until shape of quantum of matter becomes a perfect sphere. As soon as a quantum grows in to its third-spatial-dimension, it becomes a 3D matter-body. This is the stage of creation of 3D matter, in nature. We, as 3D beings, can associate only with 3D matter. Additional pressure (if available) applied all around volumetric periphery of a 3D quantum of matter may reduce its volume and compel the quantum of matter to grow into a fourth-spatial-dimension, about which we know nothing. Since, a quantum of matter has objective existence in its spatial dimension; no other quantum of matter can occupy its space, in whichever spatial-dimensional status it may be. However, two quanta of matter in different spatial dimensions have objective reality in different spatial-dimensions. Hence, each of them should be able to have objective reality at the point occupied by both of them. That is, quanta of matter, in different spatial dimensions should be able to co-exist. As long as its own dimensional space is not occupied, a quantum of matter is able to co-exist with other quanta at a point in space. Two 1D quanta of matter occupying the same point in space, essentially, have to be at an angle to each other. Their negligible widths (as and when they are developed) have to be in different planes. Since they are 1D objects, they cannot extend into each other’s spatial-dimension so as to create discontinuity for other’s existence. Since two quanta of matter are in different planes and crossing each other at a point in space (they are in different spatial dimensions), they do not intrude into each other’s spatial-dimensions. Similarly, a quantum of matter can also co-exist with a 2D matter-body (its thickness is zero) in different planes. However, as all spatial-dimensions are occupied by a 3D matter-body, a quantum of matter will be unable to coexist with a 3D quantum of matter. It will have to remain outside the 3D matter. A 1D quantum of matter exists only in its own one spatial dimension. Hence, a 1D quantum of matter is able to coexist with another 1D quantum of matter in all spatial dimensions other than its own. A 2D quantum of matter exists in a plane. Another 1D or 2D quantum of matter is able to coexist with it, in all spatial planes other than the plane of the 2D quantum of matter. If located in the plane of the 2D quantum of matter, the 1D quantum of matter will maintain its individuality and independence as a separate entity, even if it is a component of a 2D body, constituted by one or more 2D quanta of matter. A 3D body exists in all spatial planes passing through the body. A 1D quantum of matter is unable to coexist with the 3D matter-body or any of its constituent quanta of matter, in any of these planes. Even if the 1D quantum of matter is a constituent part of a 3D matter-body, it will keep its independence and integrity as a separate entity, within the 3D matter-body. Quanta of matter preserve their individuality under all circumstances. However, in exceptional circumstances of accidents, nothing prevents a quantum of matter from parting into two separate entities. If the attempt, to part a quantum of matter into two, may develop and persist for longer time, the quantum of matter may part into two individual quanta of matter. Another possibility is that of a quantum of matter with exceptionally large matter-content. Time required for an exceptionally large quantum of matter to move its whole matter-content to one side of a parting intrusion is too long, its matter-body will split into two separate quanta of matter.

Stable length of a Quantum of matter

Self-elongation compels a free two-dimensional quantum of matter to reduce its tangible measurements to single spatial-dimension. As this process go on, more and more of its periphery approaches to become parallel to major axis of its elliptical body. If matter-content of the quantum of matter is sufficient, a stage may reach, when a part of quantum of matter’s periphery between two adjacent points and similar part of its periphery on geometrically opposite sides become parallel to each other and parallel to major axis of matter-content. At this stage adhesion between opposite sides of periphery being much greater, these points tend to approach each other at a faster rate. Such displacement may create identical inward dents at these points on the periphery. Consider a hypothetical case, where matter-content of a quantum of matter is extremely large. As soon as dents appear on their periphery, adhesions at these points (except at the middle of the dents) are no more towards each other, but in the direction of perpendiculars to periphery at the dents. Dents will widen and gradually separate matter-content on either side into two separate quanta of matter. This possibility reduces probability for quanta of matter with very large matter-contents, in nature. Presence of other quanta of matter in space interferes with unlimited self-elongation of any quantum of matter. If these quanta of matter (in the same spatial dimension as the self-elongating quantum of matter) can restrict the growth of self-elongating quantum of matter before dents are formed on its periphery, it can be preserved as a stable entity. This is usually the case. Higher external efforts than what are needed are usually available from the ends of a self-elongating quantum of matter. Should magnitudes of these efforts reduce, the quantum of matter is able to grow more in its single-dimensional space. Should magnitudes of these efforts increase, the quantum of matter grows into two-dimensional space. Since, the universe is in a steady state; all available matter is already divided or reduced into quanta of matter of stable size. Average matter-content of quanta of matter in the universe is suitable for the current state of universe. No further division of quanta of matter or their matter-contents are necessary. As there is no definite mechanism to restrict matter-contents of quanta of matter to exact quantity, quanta of matter may differ from each other in quantities of their matter-contents. All quanta of matter, other than few of those constitute three-dimensional matter-particles; have somewhat identical quantity of matter in them. They are in their single-dimensional status (on the verge of conversion into two-dimensional status) with identical lengths as their tangible measurements. Uniformity and regularity of shape of universal medium is the result of uniform matter-contents of constituent quanta of matter. Any quanta of matter with higher/lower than average matter-content create disturbances in universal medium that may lead towards creation of 3D matter-particles from universal medium. This tendency removes any quanta of matter with non-uniform matter-contents from universal medium and paves way to creation of 3D matter-particles.

Self-elongation of a Quantum of matter

Matter-content of a quantum of matter has an adhesive property. This property is different from ‘attraction between parts’, as we usually understand adhesion. Adjacent points within the matter-content tend to stick together. (A point may be understood as an area/volume of matter, whose area/volume is negligible). This tendency is not carried beyond nearest points in the matter-content. There is no adhesion directly between two points, interposed by another point. Therefore, magnitude of adhesion between any two points within the matter-content is always the same, irrespective of distance between them or matter-content present between these points. We shall consider a hypothetical (free-floating) critically stable two-dimensional quantum of matter. This particle exists only in two spatial dimensions. It is a perfectly circular sheet of matter in a plane. It has no tangible thickness. Every point on its periphery experience adhesion of equal magnitude towards the centre of its circular body. As long as directions of adhesion at every point on its circular perimeter are directed towards centre of the body, the quantum of matter remains in critically stable 2D spatial state. Even a slight change in the shape of quantum of matter’s circular body changes directions of adhesion available at various points on its periphery. There will be only two sets (diametrically opposite) of peripheral points, where adhesion is directed towards the centre point of the body. At all other peripheral points, adhesion will be directed along perpendicular to tangent at that point. Slightly misshaped circle is an ellipse. It has two coordinate axes. Components of adhesion at every point on the periphery of an elliptical-shaped 2D quantum of matter, directed towards major axis of the ellipse will be greater in magnitude than those directed towards minor axis of the ellipse. Perimeter of the elliptical 2D quantum of matter tends to approach towards its major axis. Such deformation of the quantum of matter increases differences in magnitudes of adhesion at peripheral points at an accelerating rate. As a result, the matter-content of the quantum of matter squeezes itself to constrict its body’s existence in second-spatial dimension. Constriction of its existence in second-spatial dimension compels the body of quanta of matter to grow in first-spatial dimension. This character appears as its self-elongation. Similar phenomenon reduces a three-dimensional quantum of matter into two-dimensional object. In free space, a quantum of matter reduces to single-dimensional object of infinite length. Since, there is no free space with respect to a single quantum of matter, infinite increase in its length is a hypothetical consideration.

Properties of quantum of matter

Matter is inert. It has no properties except its ability to exist. Its ability to exist is the result of tendency of nearest points in it to adhere together. In our sense, this adhesion is similar to apparent attraction between these points. This tendency is restricted between the nearest points only. It does not extend beyond. Due to the inherent adhesive property of its matter-content, a free quantum of matter tends to grow in one spatial dimension, while reducing its measurements in all other spatial dimensions. ‘Self-adhesion’ of matter (in a quantum of matter) produces character of ‘self-constriction’. Matter-content of a quantum of matter, in any spatial dimension; tends to reduce its magnitude. Since matter cannot be compressed, reduction of its measurement in one spatial dimension is bound to increase its spatial dimension in another spatial dimension. Thus, self-constriction of a quantum of matter gives rise to its ‘self-elongating’ character. A quantum of matter has a natural tendency, necessitated by adhesive property of its matter-content, to grow in its own single spatial dimension. If left free, in free space, a quantum of matter will grow in length indefinitely, while reducing magnitudes in other spatial dimensions. Since matter cannot be compressed, reduction of its measurement in one spatial dimension is bound to increase its spatial dimension in another spatial dimension Even though, spatial dimensions of a quantum of matter, other than its single spatial dimension, are negligibly small, a quantum of matter has positive existence in all three spatial dimensions. Thus, a free quantum of matter is a one-dimensional matter-body with positive existence in all spatial dimensions. It has a body and two ends. We consider a point to be a dimension-less entity. Similarly a line has no breadth or thick ness and a plane has no thickness. At the same time, a point and a plane do exist in our 3D world. Reducing the length of a free quantum of matter, by external efforts, compels it to grow into second spatial dimension. Similarly, reducing the area of a 2D quantum of matter, in its spatial plane, by external effort compels it to grow into the third spatial dimension. It is at this juncture that real 3D matter, as we know, is created. Although quanta of matter in their 1D status are real matter-bodies with positive existence in space, their measurements in all spatial dimensions are too small to be tangible by our standards. Because of this difficulty, we are unable to appreciate their real existence in 3D spatial system. We may consider quanta of matter in their 1D and 2D states as functional entities.

Quantum of matter

Matter provides substance to all ‘quanta of matter’. Quantum of matter is a very small bit of matter. Matter-content of a quantum of matter provides its objective reality and positive existence in space. A quantum of matter exists in all spatial dimensions, however small such measurements may be. Different quanta of matter may contain different quantities of matter. Quanta of matter are perpetual entities. They cannot be destroyed or created. There are infinite numbers of quanta of matter and they fill the entire space in definite structural forms. No other imaginary particles or assumed properties are envisaged in this concept. Due to inherent ability of matter to exist, matter-contents at nearest points (within a quantum of matter or between quanta of matter in direct contact in the same spatial dimensions) have a tendency to merge (similar to an adhesive property). Matter-content of a quantum of matter tends to maintain its integrity under all conditions. Each quantum of matter is an independent matter-body and it keeps its individuality. In its free state, a quantum of matter is a one-dimensional body with length as its only tangible measurement. Although it may be understood as one-dimensional object, it exists in space as a real body. As a real object, it has its existence in all spatial dimensions. In its one-dimensional status, its measurements in all higher spatial dimensions are negligible compared to its length. Majority of quanta of matter in nature are of somewhat equal matter-contents. Quanta of matter, existing in different spatial dimensions and intersecting at a point, are able to co-exist at the point of their intersection. They cannot intersect in the same spatial dimensions. Due to the adhesive property of its matter-content, a free quantum of matter tends to grow in one spatial dimension, while reducing its measurements in all other spatial dimensions. If left free, in free space, a quantum of matter will grow in length indefinitely, while reducing magnitudes in other spatial dimensions. Since matter cannot be compressed, reduction of its measurement in one spatial dimension is bound to increase its spatial dimension in another spatial dimension. Even though, spatial dimensions of a quantum of matter, other than its single spatial dimension, are negligibly small, a quantum of matter has positive existence in all three spatial dimensions. Thus, a free quantum of matter is a one-dimensional matter-body with positive existence in all spatial dimensions. It has a body and two ends. Reducing the length of a free quantum of matter, by external efforts, compels it to grow into second spatial dimension. Similarly, reducing the area of a 2D quantum of matter, in its spatial plane, by external effort compels it to grow into the third spatial dimension. It is at this juncture that the real 3D matter, as we know, is created. Although quanta of matter in their 1D status are real matter-bodies with positive existence in space, their measurements in all spatial dimensions are too small to be tangible by our standards. Because of this difficulty, we are unable to appreciate their real existence in 3D spatial system. We may consider quanta of matter in their 1D and 2D states as functional entities. All superior 3D matter-bodies are formed by groups of quanta of matter. Their diverse properties are natural extensions of characteristic properties of quanta of matter. Entire space (outside 3D matter-particles) is filled with quanta of matter in definite structural formations. Creation, development, destruction and apparent interactions of all matter-bodies strictly follow ‘cause and effect’ relation. There are no actions at a distance through empty space.

Universal medium in ‘Hypothesis on MATTER’

‘Hypothesis on MATTER’ [updated in the book ‘MATTER (Re-examined)’] proposes a new universal medium. It is made of real matter in the form of ‘quanta of matter’. All other superior bodies, functions and characteristic properties of diverse matter-bodies are developed from and by quanta of matter. In order to distinguish the proposed universal medium from other forms of media in the past, it is shown as a combination of ‘2D energy fields’. 2D energy fields are formed from quanta of matter by definite mechanism, developed from inherent properties of quanta of matter. Since 2D energy fields fill the entire space, their constituent quanta of matter fill the entire space outside 3D matter-particles. Combination of 2D energy fields has all the required properties for an ideal (universal) medium. ‘2D energy fields’ by quanta of matter are real ‘material objects’ and together they form ideal all-pervading universal medium that can be substituted for space. 2D energy fields extend to infinity in all directions, each one in its own plane. ‘2D energy fields’ are arrangements of infinite numbers of latticework structures formed by quanta of matter, separately in each plane. A 2D energy field exists and extends infinitely in all directions in its own spatial plane. All possible spatial planes in the universe contain one 2D energy field, each. A 2D energy field has definite structure and it derives all its characteristic properties from constituent quanta of matter. Being the sole occupant of space (except 3D matter), 2D energy fields have to create 3D matter-particles from and by itself. ‘2D energy fields’ also has to maintain the stability and integrity of all such 3D matter-particles created and superior matter-bodies formed by 3D matter-particles. Apparent interactions, by the help of 2D energy fields, combine and group 3D matter-particles to form diverse fundamental matter-particles and larger macro bodies. Having a structured universal medium, in place of form-less and imaginary space has many advantages. An all encompassing universal medium ensures direct contact between each of 3D matter-particles in the universe. This avoids the assumption of ‘action at a distance through empty space’. 2D energy fields in all possible planes, extending infinitely in all directions and filling the entire space, together, provide an all-encompassing and real universal medium. It becomes an inherent property of ‘2D energy fields’ to be self-stabilizing, isotropic, homogeneous and serene. A steady universal medium provides an absolute reference for all actions and locations of 3D matter-bodies in space. Since the universal medium has a structure, it can deform, contract or expand. It acts as the originator of all actions on 3D matter-bodies and apparent interactions between 3D matter-bodies. 3D matter is inert; it has no ability to act or move on its own. A universal medium, structured with real matter-particles, can logically explain all actions and characteristic properties of diverse matter-bodies in nature. Summarising the above, we can find that the universal medium: Is made of quanta of matter. Has definite structure and behaves like a perfect liquid. Is able to repair itself and tends to strive towards homogeneous, isotropic and serene state. Extends indefinitely in all directions and fills the entire space outside the most basic 3D matter-particles. Has highest matter density that is equal to the matter-density of the most basic 3D matter-particle. Is the direct link between all basic 3D matter-particles in nature. Is the cause and actuator of all apparent actions and apparent interactions in nature. Is perpetually under compression, even without a limiting container. Produces the property of gravitation by perpetual compression of 3D matter-particles. Causes different manifestations of gravitation (only natural effort) to appear as various ‘natural forces’. In short, the universal medium proposed in the book ‘MATTER (Re-examined)’ is a materialistic entity that is omnipresent, omnipotent and omniscient, which initiates, controls and terminates all actions and apparent interactions in a steady state universe. For details visit www.matterdoc.info.

Spatial states of existence of matter

Matter provides substance to all real entities. A three-dimensional matter-particle contains matter without voids in it. Whole space, occupied by a 3D matter-particle, is occupied by matter. Real universal medium is also made up of matter. Universal medium fills the entire space outside 3D matter-particles. There are no voids in it either. Hence, entire space outside 3D matter-particles is also filled with matter. In order to satisfy these requirements, matter-density of a 3D matter-particle and the matter-density of universal medium, outside 3D matter-particle, have to be the same. As 3D matter-particles and the surrounding universal medium have the same matter-density, entire space (universal medium along with 3D matter-particles in it) should form a single block of matter of uniform matter-density and of infinite extent and volume. Matter cannot be compressed beyond the matter-density of a 3D matter-particle or that of universal medium. A matter-body of zero volume and infinite mass (singularity) is impossible to achieve. Yet, while the 3D matter-particles and the macro bodies formed by them are tangible and can be sensed, universal medium and its matter-components should remain intangible and hidden from 3D rational beings. This shows that (with respect to rational beings) matter can have different states of existence. In certain states of existence, 3D rational beings can observe matter (in the form of matter-bodies) and in certain states of existence, 3D rational beings can not observe or sense matter (when it is in the form of universal medium). Sensory organs and instruments of 3D rational beings are evolved to sense only 3D matter-bodies. Hence they observe and consider only 3D matter-bodies as real entities. For this a matter-body has to be tangible and observable in 3D spatial system. To be tangible or observable, a 3D matter-body has to have certain measurements in all three spatial dimensions. If dimensions of a 3D matter-body in any or all of three spatial dimensions become too small to be tangible or observable by standards of 3D rational beings, they could no more be considered as (real) 3D entities. However, since these matter-bodies continue to exist in all spatial dimensions, they are real entities. Although these matter-bodies have their existence in all spatial dimensions, rational beings will not be able to observe or sense them, only because their measurements in one or more spatial dimension(s) is/are intangible by 3D standards. If the spatial-dimensional measurement of a matter-body becomes intangible in any one of three spatial dimensions, it may be considered as a two-dimensional matter-body. If the spatial-dimensional measurements of a matter-body become intangible in any two of three spatial dimensions, it may be considered as a single-dimensional matter-body. Therefore, it is possible for matter to remain real and be able to exist in 1D, 2D or 3D states. In its 1D and 2D states, a matter-body is hidden from 3D rational beings. Although these matter-bodies are real, as they are hidden, 3D rational beings may consider them to be functional entities. Only in its 3D state, a matter-body becomes real and observable to 3D rational beings. However, this does not prevent matter in any spatial dimension from being a real entity.

Ideal universal medium

A ‘universal medium’ that has all desirable properties of aether but has no disadvantages of the same may be proposed to replace (imaginary) functional entities, (like; space, space-time, fields, force-carrying particles, concentrated forms of energy, imaginary entities with negative existence, vibrating strings, mathematical constructs, etc.), currently used to facilitate conceptual explanations on various physical phenomena. Then the terms ‘universal medium’ and ‘space’ can be used synonymously. The term ‘space’ (and other functional entities used in place of space) will then mean the ‘universal medium’ and vice versa. An all-encompassing medium of matter may be envisaged to fill the entire space, outside three-dimensional matter-particles, including inter-particle space in a macro body. To fill entire space is to have positive existence in space in all spatial dimensions, without voids in it. To have positive existence, the universal medium has to be a real object. Reality of an object is provided by its substance. In nature, matter alone can provide substance. Hence this universal medium has to have matter as its content. It can be made up of matter or matter in the form of small matter-particles. To be made up of small matter-particles is to have definite structure. Contents and structure endows an object with its properties. Hence the universal medium has to have definite structure and properties, derived from its constituent matter-particles. A three-dimensional matter-particle contains matter without voids in it. Whole space, occupied by a 3D matter-particle, is filled by matter. Universal medium fills the entire space outside 3D matter-particles. There are no voids in it. Hence, entire space outside 3D matter-particles should also be filled with matter. In order to satisfy this requirement, matter-density of a 3D matter-particle and matter-density of universal medium, outside 3D matter-particle should be the same. Yet, while 3D matter-particles and bodies formed by them are tangible and can be sensed, universal medium and its components should remain intangible and hidden from 3D rational beings. Entire universal medium along with 3D matter-particles in it, together, should form a single block of matter of uniform matter-density and of infinite extent and volume. Matter cannot be compressed beyond the matter-density of a 3D matter-particle or that of universal medium. A matter-body of zero volume and infinite mass (as at the singularity) is impossible to achieve. A universal medium should be made up of real matter-particles and under a definite mechanism of formation. All its actions, interactions and properties will have to be derived from the properties of constituent matter-particles. Since matter alone can form a real universal medium and diverse 3D matter-bodies, all properties of both of these entities should be derived from the most basic matter-particles in nature. No assumed particles, imaginary properties or mysterious interactions should be necessary to understand any physical phenomenon. Actions of basic matter-particles in the universal medium should be able to account for all physical phenomena in nature; from creation and sustenance of universal medium itself to interactions between 3D objects; from creation, sustenance and destruction of fundamental particles to cosmological events; gravity to nuclear interactions; etc. A universal medium should be a self-sustaining materialistic body. By its inherent properties, the universal medium should strive towards homogeneity, isotropy and serenity; all by itself. All ‘natural forces’, apparent interactions between 3D matter-bodies and diverse properties of 3D matter-bodies in various forms should be extensions of these inherent properties. Inherent properties of universal medium should be derived from the properties of its constituent matter-particles. All 3D matter-particles (and superior bodies made up of 3D matter-particles) should exist within the universal medium. Universal medium should serve as interlink between every 3D matter-particle in the universe. Since there are no direct contacts between 3D matter-bodies and all 3D bodies are in contact with universal medium, the universal medium should serve as an intermediary for all apparent interactions between 3D matter-bodies. 3D matter is inert. It cannot cause its own changes or displacements. All actions on 3D matter-bodies or those actions which appear as actions by 3D matter-bodies, in nature, should be performed by universal medium outside 3D matter-particles. Universal medium should contain all 3D matter-bodies and hence form a common link between them. Each 3D matter-body should be acted upon by the universal medium separately. Simultaneous actions by universal medium on different 3D matter-bodies will appear as an interaction between them. Having a universal medium that is in contact with every 3D matter-particle in the universe does away with the illogical assumption of ‘actions at a distance through empty space’. Since the universal medium pre-exists all 3D bodies and no 3D bodies exists outside universal medium, it will fulfill the role of a container that is logically prior to its contents. Since 3D matter-bodies do not exist outside universal medium, the universal medium has to create 3D matter-particles out of itself, sustain them in their free states or in combinations in the form of self-sustaining superior 3D matter-particles and macro bodies and destroy them at appropriate time. To maintain its own stability, it will be necessary for the universal medium to create/destroy 3D matter-bodies cyclically and in different localities in the universe. This should be done by gradually destroying 3D macro bodies in certain regions to revert their matter-contents back into the universal medium, while creating new 3D macro bodies from matter-contents from it, in other regions. This will not only maintain the integrity and stability of universal medium, it will also regulate entropy of the universe within limits. A stable universal medium should be able to sustain a steady-state of universe, perpetually. Rational beings are three-dimensional macro bodies and exist in three-dimensional spatial system. They are able to sense only three-dimensional objects. Since the universal medium or its components remain intangible and hidden to 3D rational beings, they should have their status in one-dimensional or two-dimensional spatial systems. Three-dimensional rational beings will be unable to sense them directly. Although basic matter-particles have real existence in space, magnitudes of their spatial dimensions will be too small to be tangible or sensed by three-dimensional spatial standards. Thus, universal medium or its constituents in 1D or 2D states will remain hidden for all practical purposes. However, it could manifest its presence by actions on 3D matter-bodies. All actions require impetus. Impetus is the ‘ability to do work’. A matter-body contains nothing but matter, which is incapable to do work. Hence, the ability to do work should be stored outside matter-bodies but in association with them. Universal medium, surrounding the 3D matter-particles or in and about a 3D macro matter-body is an ideal place to store the ‘ability to do work’ or the ‘work’ itself. In order to act on matter-bodies, the universal medium should have ability to act. That is it should be able to transfer work from one region to another. All actions are recognised by motion (displacement) of 3D matter-bodies. Macro bodies move by sequential displacements of their matter-particles, starting from the point of application of external effort. Matter-particles, nearest to the ‘force-applying mechanism’, move first. This, in turn, compresses universal medium between the displaced matter-particle and the matter-particle in front. Inherent property of stability causes the compressed part of universal medium to return to its original form by expanding. This expansion can be achieved only by pushing the matter-particles away from each other. Since the matter-particles at the point of application of external effort are displaced forward and held in place, matter-particles in front have no options but to move forward. Similar actions, between matter-particles of a macro body cause its displacement during an action by external effort. ‘Energy-transfer’ in or by macro bodies, essentially requires a universal medium between their constituent matter-particles. ‘Energy’ can also be transferred through space in the form of invisible disturbances, like: ‘electromagnetic waves’, ‘field-disturbances’, etc. Since no displacements of 3D matter-particles are involved in this process, the universal medium, itself, has to act as an agent of ‘energy-transfer’ by its own compression and expansion. A universal medium should be a stable but deformable real entity. Deformations are displacements and hence tangible. Displacements in universal medium are ‘work’ and it is tangible. A tangible entity is real. Hence, work is a real entity. ‘Ability to do work’ could be the stress produced in the universal medium due a strain/distortion in it. Ability to act or to do work is called ‘energy’. Hence, universal medium acts as storage for ‘energy’. Unlike stress, displacement is tangible and hence real. Stress accompanies strain in a stable system. Hence, the strain in the universal medium about a matter-body is the ‘work-done’ and associated stress is its ‘energy’. Energy has no independent existence and it is a functional entity. It appears as a shadow of work-done.

Alternatives for Aether

Everyday experience of natural phenomena shows material things are moved by contact between a ‘force-applying body’ and a ‘force-receiving body’. Thus, logically, we came to conclude that for any action to take place between two real 3D matter-bodies there must be a contact between them. Nature of this contact is expressed as action of an effort (force) between these bodies. Any ‘cause and effect’ without a discernable contact between participating 3D matter-bodies, or an ‘action at a distance through empty space,’ contradicts common sense and has been an unacceptable notion since earliest of time. Such actions are usually credited to super-natural phenomena. Aether was discovered during the heyday of aether-theories. According to which all space is permeated by a medium capable of transmitting efforts (forces) between 3D matter-particles. The electric fields and magnetic fields were interpreted as descriptions of the state of strain/stress of the aether, so that the location of stored energy in space was like as it would be in a compressed spring. With the abandonment of the (vague) aether-theories, following the rise of relativity theory, this imaginary model ceased to have validity. Whenever the concept of space is unable to logically explain any physical phenomena or the nature of transmission of certain actions and effects over a distance is not understood, even today, the aether (in the forms of various fields or mysterious force-carrying particles or mathematical constructs) is resorted to as a conceptual solution of the transmitting medium. This is because an all-encompassing universal medium is essential to destroy the myth of ‘action at a distance through empty space’, which is the worst illogical assumption of modern science. Currently different types of substitutes are used instead of space. However, descriptions of how these ‘aether-substitutes’ function remain vague, but its existence in the forms of various fields or imaginary particles or mathematical constructs is required by common sense and thus not questioned. Different types of fields, concentrated forms of energy, imaginary entities with negative existence, force-carrying particles, structure-less space capable of distortions, mathematical constructs, etc. are used in various theories. Each of these entities is different from others and suits only a particular theory. Each of them proposes different types of fields or structure with vague properties of aether. They have no common properties. They seem to exist without existence. They are mainly used for conceptual explanations and mathematical treatments of theories concerned. Such tendencies have taken physics far from conceptual understanding and caused its heavy dependence on mathematical analysis. Mathematics may be a very good tool to understand physics, but it should not dictate (illogical) physical theories.

Aether as a substitute for space

There is no logical argument for a definition of space based on imaginary concepts. That is why, from early time, it was believed that a real entity, namely (different kinds of) aether, filled the entire space. In such theories, aether (with real existence) replaced non-existent space by filling it entirely. Mode of filling or mechanism of existence of these entities were never discussed. It was simply believed that the undefined aether work in place of unacceptable space. Therefore, all properties originally assigned to the functional entity of space could become properties of aether, a real entity. Although the aether had an ambiguous form but it was regarded as a real entity. Since the aether was real, it could deform, move or otherwise interact with other 3D material objects. This seems to have made all actions more logical and easy to understand. Unfortunately, no one could describe a satisfactory structure or properties for any of the different kinds of aether, proposed. Different types of aether were envisaged at different times in the past. The aether was assumed to be weightless, transparent, frictionless, chemically or physically undetectable and literally permeating all matter and space. ‘Aether theories’ met with increasing difficulties as the nature of light and the structure of matter became better defined, even if it was on imaginary basis. Since there was no accepted definition of aether, scientists concentrated their effort to find and measure an effect, the aether may make on other 3D macro bodies. For this they assumed, when a large macro body moves through aether, the macro body should essentially experience a drag due to the friction between the two. Aether theory was seriously weakened (1881) by the Michelson-Morley experiment, which was designed specifically to detect resistance to the motion of the Earth through the ether. Experiments showed that there was no such tangible effect. Finally, when aether’s existence could not be proved experimentally, by experiments based on illogical theories, majority of scientists abandoned the concept of (real) aether. They returned to more mysterious concepts of space and fields. Aether could have won the day if it could be explained that it is a real entity with definite structure, in direct contact with matter-bodies and it could move enclosed matter-bodies without appreciably moving itself but at the same time without any relative motion between moving body and the aether.

Space

Space is treated differently in different aspects. In physics; the space is usually understood as “the boundless three-dimensional extent of universe, where all material objects and organisms (including rational beings like ourselves) exist and in which objects and events occur”. All material objects in the universe have their relative as well as absolute positions and motions in the space. Space, itself, has no material existence. It cannot provide sense-experience to rational beings. In physical descriptions, only an entity that has physical existence can be sensed or extend or shrink. As no entity with physical existence is mentioned in the definition of space, space is an imaginary (functional) entity. A functional entity has no objective reality and can fulfill only the functions assigned to it by the proposer. It exists only in the mind of proposer and in mathematical analyses. Space is a functional entity that serves the purpose of locating various material bodies in it and where rational beings relate themselves with each other. The extent, outside material bodies, becomes the space. In contemporary physics, the imaginary space is able to dilate or contract as required even without objective reality. Currently, empty space is endowed with many of physical properties that a material object may have while it is also considered as absolute vacuum. All spatial concepts are related to contact-experiences of (matter) bodies. This has made it necessary to envisage an entity independent of bodies and yet embodying their locations. This entity, outside material bodies yet enclosing them, came to be understood as space. When a rational mind envisages a real object, it logically pre-supposes a place for its existence. This is understood not by sensing such a place but by the necessity of a place for the existence for any real body to exist. As a result, the notion of space is somewhat incoherent because it professes to be a container that is logically prior to its contents. Space turns out, in practice, to be merely an indefinitely extensible collection of its contents. Everything that occupies space falls within this wider spatial context. Space denotes a property by virtue of which different bodies occupy different positions in the universe. The possibility of arranging an unlimited number of matter-bodies next to one another denotes that the space is infinite in its extent. However far one can go, matter-bodies are there and beyond. If the space, outside the most basic 3D matter-particles, is filled entirely by a real universal medium, the medium and the space become synonymous. Space is no more an imaginary void, but a real medium, which contains all three-dimensional bodies in nature. Now, since the universal medium has a structure and constituents, it is able to deform and undergo all actions normally the imaginary space is assumed to perform. The universal medium can also substitute for various types of fields, used in present theories. Since the universal medium encloses all three-dimensional bodies, it acts as a direct link between any two such bodies and the assumption of ‘action at a distance through empty space’ is not required any more. The concept, proposed in the book, ‘MATTER (re-examined)’, considers space as an imaginary container, envisaged by rational beings as and when they think about three-dimensional material objects. It extends infinitely in all directions from the observer. In order to make space a real entity, it has to have substance that provides it with objective reality and positive existence. In material world, existence of matter is nearest to absolute truth. Therefore, in order to be real, space has to be made up of matter. When space is real, it can behave like any other real entity.

Matter

All real entities are materialistic. In material world, existence of matter is nearest to absolute truth. Real entities are material objects made out of matter. Matter is the stuff that gives real entities their materialistic existence. Matter is a physical substance that occupies space and may be perceived by one or more senses. Matter is distinct from qualities, properties, thoughts, mind and spirit. Only the matter is real. All others are functional. Having matter-content as its substance, makes an entity a real object that may be perceived by sensory organs. In (Aristotelian and Scholastic) philosophy, matter is in itself undifferentiated and formless and which, when subjected to change and development, receives form and becomes substance. Hence, matter is the substance any physical object consists of or is composed of or simply matter is something that exists in space. At different stages of history, the concept of matter had many variations, in the light of scientific knowledge prevailing at the time of what are considered as basic building blocks and their interactions. At one stage, atoms were considered as basic building blocks and all matter were considered to be constituted by atoms. Later, matter was viewed as solid, massive and movable particles. Still later, smaller fundamental constituents of matter were discovered to change the constitution of matter. Currently, in physics and chemistry, matter is assumed to exhibit both wave-like and particle-like properties, the so-called wave-particle duality. Often matter is disregarded and one of its attributes, the mass, is accorded the status of reality. Matter is the ‘material substance that constitutes the observable universe and, together with energy, forms the basis of all objective phenomena’ (encyclopedia Britannica). All matter share certain fundamental properties. Currently, matter is (generally) regarded to have certain properties, as understood from observation of nature. Every physical entity is assumed to have properties of mass, gravitation, inertia, etc. All primary properties of matter are amenable to mathematical description. Nevertheless, its secondary properties (or qualities) are not considered mathematically. Although, mass of a body is a measure of its inertia, it is commonly taken as equivalent to a measure of the amount of material contained in the body. Matter in bulk may have several states of existence in nature. A common definition of ‘matter is anything that has mass and occupies a volume’. Matter has many definitions in physics, but the most common one currently used is that it is any substance, which has mass and occupies space and exists in one of the physical states. All physical objects are composed of matter, in the form of atoms, which are in turn composed of protons, deuterons, neutrons, electrons, etc. Currently, photons are assumed to have no mass, so they are an example of something in present-day physics, which is not comprised of matter. They are also not considered as objects, in the traditional sense, as they cannot remain static. In cosmology, the term matter includes dark matter and dark energy, concepts used to explain some anomalous phenomena observed in the universe. These exotic forms of ‘matter’ do not refer to matter as substance that occupies space but rather to unknown entities of mass and energy. Definition of matter is revised in light of quantum mechanics, where the concept of ‘having mass’, and ‘occupying space’ do not have the same meaning as in everyday life. Some similar theories hold the view that bodies are made of several substances and the properties of matter (including, mass and volume) are determined not only by the constituent substances themselves, but by how they interact. In other words, matter is made up of interacting ‘building blocks’. According to special theory of relativity, matter (considered as mass) and energy are equivalent. Accordingly, mass (matter) can be converted into energy and energy into mass (matter). Usually, matter is ignored altogether in this theory. Mass usurps its place. See: http://vixra.org/pdf/1206.0048v2.pdf

Substance

The term ‘matter’, traditionally refers to the substance that all objects are made of. One common way to identify this substance is through its physical properties. The concept of substance, in its generic sense in any philosophical system, is those things, which (according to that system) are the foundational or fundamental entities of reality. They are the basic substances from which everything else is constructed. In certain philosophy, impressions and ideas are the substances, for the same reason. Etc. Although in different senses, all philosophical systems acknowledge existence of substances as a particular kind of basic entity. Some philosophical theories acknowledge them as such and others do not. Conception of substance as basic entity derives from our notion of individuality of ‘thing’ or ‘object’, in contrast with ‘properties’ of entities and ‘events’. In its physical sense, substance is that which exists in itself and does not depend upon anything else for its existence. Attributes or characteristic properties are inherent in (and about) substances and depend on the substance for their existence. Existence is recognised by rational mind. This may be the result of correct or incorrect sensory perceptions or it may be by mere thought-process. If existence is recognised by sensory perception, in order to exist, the substance needs a place. Hence, it is essential for a rational mind to presuppose a space for the existence of a real entity. This is how we created the functional entity of space in the universe. Space is purely a functional entity. Its sole function is to provide a place of existence for real objects. It has neither a form, nor a structure nor physical properties. Such a body cannot move, distort or act. Functional entities do not require space for their existence. They exist in the minds of perceivers. Rational beings perceive entities by their sensory organs. Perceived information is then processed and compared with previous experiences by rational being’s mind to know and experience the entity and its existence. Existence is always particular and individual. This does not mean that all that is perceived by senses are real. Different sensory organs may perceive same object in different ways. Only one of them corresponds to reality. [A stick, partially dipped in water, may appear by sight as a bend body – an imaginary stick. By touch, the stick would appear in its real shape, a straight body – the real stick. Both, the imaginary stick and the real stick, appear to exist in the same location. If they exist in the same location, surely they cannot be different but the same entity. In this case, the bend stick has no existence but the straight one exists in space. Both the real (straight) stick and the imaginary (bend) stick are perceptions of mind, but by different sensory organs. Real (straight) stick exists in space and the imaginary (bend) stick does not exist in space. Only the real (straight) stick occupies space. It is a real entity. It has positive existence in space. Bend stick, perceived by the rational being is an imaginary entity. It has no existence in space. It exists only in the mind of the perceiver. This is an example of aberration of sensory perceptions.] All entities, which have no real existence in space but have their existence only in the mind of perceiver, are imaginary entities. They are functional and fulfil functions assigned to them by rational beings. One school of philosophy (led by David Hume) denied the existence of substance, using the epistemological principles. They argued that; since all human knowledge must be traced back to sensation, the idea of substance must be also be traced to the same. Since the sensory perceptions themselves cannot provide knowledge of substance, no one can know substance, as a distinct stuff from that of a collection of particular qualities or attributes. Thus, substances are nothing but a collection of simple ideas that are united by the imagination, and have a particular name assigned to them. In its essence, knowledge of the aesthetic object becomes the knowledge of aesthetic experience itself. This school of thought adopts the approach that puts the aesthetic experience first and then examines the aesthetic object as an intentional object of that experience. This consideration is suitable to functional entities like imaginary particles, art forms, etc. Imaginary entities are created by rational beings in their minds and all their attributes are also subscribed by them. A painting is nothing but a collection of canvas and colours. It is the rational mind that attributes its functionality and qualities. However, many scientists, in dealing with modern physics engaged this philosophy to produce exotic theories, based on imaginary particles and mysterious properties, which are acquiescent with complicated mathematical treatments. Simple logical reasoning is not allowed to question their genuineness or logic. See: http://vixra.org/pdf/1802.0086v1.pdf

Entities

A living being perceives its surrounding or parts of its own body by sensing them. Perception is accomplished by analysing information gained through sense-organs and comparing them with images stored in one’s own mind. Perceived entity has a distinct but separate existence from the perceiver (mind). An entity may be real or imaginary. Mind, itself a functional entity, is a combined action caused by changes in numerous living cells of the being. Mind identifies all entities by similar process. However, perception of real entities is aided by sensory perception. Perceiver (rational beings) may identify and name an entity. A name is a word (or group of words) referring to an individual entity, which singles out an entity by directly pointing to it. An entity that is sensed by sensory organs or is tangible and is relatively stable in its form is a real object or real body with distinct existence. It has existence in itself. To exist is to have a place in objective reality. A place that contains a real entity is usually understood as space. Although space is functional and very vague, such a place of existence is always presupposed by rational beings, whenever an entity is envisaged. Space acts as a container, without form or structure to contain all real objects. All physical entities are real. In physics, they are generally referred to as bodies or objects. They have inherent (apparent) properties of gravitation and inertia. By gravitation, they (apparently) attract each other. By inertia, each real body (apparently) tends to maintain its state of motion or rest. Real bodies have substance and they occupy space. Since they have structure, they can be displaced in space; causing their motion or deformation. Hence, the physical actions of motion or deformation are real and can happen only to real entities. An imaginary entity is functional in its character. It is developed or created from mind’s own faculty, without any need to sensory information. It has no substance or real existence in space. A functional entity fulfils functions assigned to it by rational beings. Since it has no substance, it has no form or structure. It can neither initiate nor undergo physical actions. It cannot deform or move. See: http://vixra.org/pdf/1802.0086v1.pdf

The book 'Gravitation' by Nainan K. Varghese

Current knowledge about gravitation is limited only to a part of its dynamic actions on three-dimensional matter bodies. So far, no attempts to discover the nature and real actions of gravitation have succeeded. The primary obstacles in the way of a realistic theory on gravitation are the deep-rooted conviction in ‘action at a distance’ through empty space and the neglect of static aspects of gravitation. This book is a compilation from the revolutionary alternative concept described in the prior published book ‘Hypothesis on MATTER’. It provides a new and better understanding about the true nature of gravitation. Gravitation, according to this concept, is a push action by the universal medium on matter. Sole aspect of gravitation, known currently – the gravitational (apparent) attraction between individual matter bodies - is only a byproduct of distinct gravitational actions on separate bodies and it originates from the all-encompassing universal medium rather than from the matter bodies themselves. Main functions of gravitation are creation, conservation and obliteration of 3D matter in the universe. All natural forces are shown to originate from gravitational actions and thus proving that their observed diversity to be merely an apparent phenomenon. This concept establishes that there is no ‘action at a distance’ and all natural forces are same. Available at: https://www.amazon.com/dp/1450556264

Hypothesis on MATTER

Hypothesis on MATTER is a revolutionary new concept, which attempts to explain all physical phenomena related to matter based on just one type of fundamental particle – the Quantum of matter. These particles form, what the author calls, 2D energy fields. Space is assumed to contain an infinite number of 2D Energy Fields extending in all directions. Author masterfully explains a wide array of physical phenomena, from the origin of matter to gravity and subatomic interactions to cosmological events, based on the simple mechanical interactions of quanta of matter. There is no more any need to envisage actions at a distance or to invoke irrational assumptions like diversity of forces, mass-energy equivalence, constancy of light’s speed, dual nature of electric charge, singularities, big bang, etc. This new concept will radically alter our understanding of the physical universe and at the same time, explain complex physical phenomena with simple Cause and Effect relationships. ‘MATTER (Re-examined)’https://www.matterdoc.info Volume I (Print):https://www.amazon.com/dp/1492241865 Volume I (E book):https://www.amazon.com/dp/B07R9NP37K Volume II (Print):https://www.amazon.com/dp/1492241881 Volume II (E book):https://www.amazon.com/dp/B07R8NC8QK